Bardet-Biedl Syndrome ciliopathy is linked to altered hematopoiesis and dysregulated self-tolerance.

Bardet-Biedl Syndrome (BBS) is a pleiotropic genetic disease caused by the dysfunction of primary cilia. The immune system of patients with ciliopathies has not been investigated. However, there are multiple indications that the impairment of the processes typically associated with cilia may have influence on the hematopoietic compartment and immunity. In this study, we analyze clinical data of BBS patients and corresponding mouse models carrying mutations in Bbs4 or Bbs18. We find that BBS patients have a higher prevalence of certain autoimmune diseases. Both BBS patients and animal models have altered red blood cell and platelet compartments, as well as elevated white blood cell levels. Some of the hematopoietic system alterations are associated with BBS-induced obesity. Moreover, we observe that the development and homeostasis of B cells in mice is regulated by the transport complex BBSome, whose dysfunction is a common cause of BBS. The BBSome limits canonical WNT signaling and increases CXCL12 levels in bone marrow stromal cells. Taken together, our study reveals a connection between a ciliopathy and dysregulated immune and hematopoietic systems.

Histone methyltransferase PRDM9 is not essential for meiosis in male mice.

A hallmark of meiosis is the rearrangement of parental alleles to ensure genetic diversity in the gametes. These chromosome rearrangements are mediated by the repair of programmed DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) as genetic crossovers between parental homologs. In mice, humans, and many other mammals, meiotic DSBs occur primarily at hotspots, determined by sequence-specific binding of the PRDM9 protein. Without PRDM9, meiotic DSBs occur near gene promoters and other functional sites. Studies in a limited number of mouse strains showed that functional PRDM9 is required to complete meiosis, but despite its apparent importance, Prdm9 has been repeatedly lost across many animal lineages. Both the reason for mouse sterility in the absence of PRDM9 and the mechanism by which Prdm9 can be lost remain unclear. Here, we explore whether mice can tolerate the loss of Prdm9 By generating Prdm9 functional knockouts in an array of genetic backgrounds, we observe a wide range of fertility phenotypes and ultimately demonstrate that PRDM9 is not required for completion of male meiosis. Although DSBs still form at a common subset of functional sites in all mice lacking PRDM9, meiotic outcomes differ substantially. We speculate that DSBs at functional sites are difficult to repair as a crossover and that by increasing the efficiency of crossover formation at these sites, genetic modifiers of recombination rates can allow for meiotic progression. This model implies that species with a sufficiently high recombination rate may lose Prdm9 yet remain fertile.

Prdm9 deficiency of rat oocytes causes synapsis among non-homologous chromosomes and aneuploidy.

Aneuploidy (abnormal chromosome number) accompanies reduced ovarian function in humans and mice, but the reasons behind this concomitance remain underexplored. Some variants in the human gene encoding histone-3-lysine-4,36-trimethyltransferase PRDM9 are associated with aneuploidy, and other variants with ovarian function reduced by premature ovarian failure (POF), but no link between POF and aneuploidy has been revealed. SHR/OlaIpcv rat females lacking PRDM9 manifest POF-a reduced follicle number, litter size, and reproductive age. Here, we explored this model to test how POF relates to oocyte euploidy. The mutant rat females displayed increased oocyte aneuploidy and embryonic death of their offspring compared to controls. Because rat PRDM9 positions meiotic DNA breaks, we investigated the repair of these breaks. Fertile control rodents carry pachytene oocytes with synapsed homologous chromosomes and repaired breaks, while sterile Prdm9-deficient mice carry pachytene-like oocytes with many persisting breaks and asynapsed chromosomes. However, most PRDM9-lacking rat oocytes displayed a few persisting breaks and non-homologous synapsis (NHS). HORMAD2 protein serves as a barrier to sister-chromatid repair and a signal for the synapsis and DNA repair checkpoints. NHS but not asynapsis was associated with HORMAD2 levels similar to the levels on rat pachytene chromosomes with homologous synapsis. NHS was accompanied by crossing-over decreased below the minimum that is essential for euploidy. We argue that the increased mutant rat aneuploidy is due to NHS, which allows some oocytes to pass meiotic checkpoints without one crossing-over per chromosomal pair, leading to segregation errors, and thereby NHS links POF to aneuploidy.

Rat PRDM9 shapes recombination landscapes, duration of meiosis, gametogenesis, and age of fertility.

BACKGROUND: Vertebrate meiotic recombination events are concentrated in regions (hotspots) that display open chromatin marks, such as trimethylation of lysines 4 and 36 of histone 3 (H3K4me3 and H3K36me3). Mouse and human PRDM9 proteins catalyze H3K4me3 and H3K36me3 and determine hotspot positions, whereas other vertebrates lacking PRDM9 recombine in regions with chromatin already opened for another function, such as gene promoters. While these other vertebrate species lacking PRDM9 remain fertile, inactivation of the mouse Prdm9 gene, which shifts the hotspots to the functional regions (including promoters), typically causes gross fertility reduction; and the reasons for these species differences are not clear. RESULTS: We introduced Prdm9 deletions into the Rattus norvegicus genome and generated the first rat genome-wide maps of recombination-initiating double-strand break hotspots. Rat strains carrying the same wild-type Prdm9 allele shared 88% hotspots but strains with different Prdm9 alleles only 3%. After Prdm9 deletion, rat hotspots relocated to functional regions, about 40% to positions corresponding to Prdm9-independent mouse hotspots, including promoters. Despite the hotspot relocation and decreased fertility, Prdm9-deficient rats of the SHR/OlaIpcv strain produced healthy offspring. The percentage of normal pachytene spermatocytes in SHR-Prdm9 mutants was almost double than in the PWD male mouse oligospermic sterile mutants. We previously found a correlation between the crossover rate and sperm presence in mouse Prdm9 mutants. The crossover rate of SHR is more similar to sperm-carrying mutant mice, but it did not fully explain the fertility of the SHR mutants. Besides mild meiotic arrests at rat tubular stages IV (mid-pachytene) and XIV (metaphase), we also detected postmeiotic apoptosis of round spermatids. We found delayed meiosis and age-dependent fertility in both sexes of the SHR mutants. CONCLUSIONS: We hypothesize that the relative increased fertility of rat versus mouse Prdm9 mutants could be ascribed to extended duration of meiotic prophase I. While rat PRDM9 shapes meiotic recombination landscapes, it is unnecessary for recombination. We suggest that PRDM9 has additional roles in spermatogenesis and speciation-spermatid development and reproductive age-that may help to explain male-specific hybrid sterility.

Copy-number variation introduced by long transgenes compromises mouse male fertility independently of pachytene checkpoints.

Long transgenes are often used in mammalian genetics, e.g., to rescue mutations in large genes. In the course of experiments addressing the genetic basis of hybrid sterility caused by meiotic defects in mice bearing different alleles of Prdm9, we discovered that introduction of copy-number variation (CNV) via two independent insertions of long transgenes containing incomplete Prdm9 decreased testicular weight and epididymal sperm count. Transgenic animals displayed increased occurrence of seminiferous tubules with apoptotic cells at 18 days postpartum (dpp) corresponding to late meiotic prophase I, but not at 21 dpp. We hypothesized that long transgene insertions could cause asynapsis, but the immunocytochemical data revealed that the adult transgenic testes carried a similar percentage of asynaptic pachytene spermatocytes as the controls. These transgenic spermatocytes displayed less crossovers but similar numbers of unrepaired meiotic breaks. Despite slightly increased frequency of metaphase I spermatocytes with univalent chromosome(s) and reduced numbers of metaphase II spermatocytes, cytological studies did not reveal increased apoptosis in tubules containing the metaphase spermatocytes, but found an increased percentage of tubules carrying apoptotic spermatids. Sperm counts of subfertile animals inversely correlated with the transcription levels of the Psmb1 gene encoded within these two transgenes. The effect of the transgenes was dependent on sex and genetic background. Our results imply that the fertility of transgenic hybrid animals is not compromised by the impaired meiotic synapsis of homologous chromosomes, but can be negatively influenced by the increased expression of the introduced genes.

Meiotic epigenetic factor PRDM9 impacts sperm quality of hybrid mice.

Reduced fertility of male mouse hybrids relative to their parents, or hybrid sterility, is governed by the hybrid sterility 1 (Hst1) locus. Rescue experiments with transgenes carrying sequences within or near Hst1 manifested that Hst1 contains the gene encoding meiosis-specific histone methyltransferase PRDM9. The Prdm9 gene is responsible for partial meiotic arrest, testicular atrophy, and low sperm count in (C57BL/6J x PWD)F1 mouse hybrids. Here we report that these male hybrids suffer an additional reproductive disadvantage, decreased sperm quality, which is (i) further exacerbated by the introduction of long transgenes carrying sequences from Hst1 with incomplete Prdm9 into their genome and (ii) controlled by the Prdm9 dosage. These transgenic male hybrids displayed the features of severe oligoasthenoteratozoospermia (OAT), a human infertility syndrome characterized by a low number of spermatozoa with poor motility and morphological abnormalities. Analysis of spermiogenesis in these mice revealed acrosome detachment, aberrant elongation and condensation of the nucleus. As a result, the transgenic sperm had acrosome malformations, abnormal chromatin packaging, and fragmented DNA with elevated base oxidation, revealed by using multiple methods. Heterozygosity for one null Prdm9 allele improved meiotic progression and sperm quality of both non- and transgenic hybrids. Our results indicate that genomic analysis of OAT patients should include consideration of allelic variants in PRDM9, and our transgenic models can serve as tools to understand the diverse molecular processes that, when perturbed, can cause this disease.

Hybrid Sterility Locus on Chromosome X Controls Meiotic Recombination Rate in Mouse.

Meiotic recombination safeguards proper segregation of homologous chromosomes into gametes, affects genetic variation within species, and contributes to meiotic chromosome recognition, pairing and synapsis. The Prdm9 gene has a dual role, it controls meiotic recombination by determining the genomic position of crossover hotspots and, in infertile hybrids of house mouse subspecies Mus m. musculus (Mmm) and Mus m. domesticus (Mmd), it further functions as the major hybrid sterility gene. In the latter role Prdm9 interacts with the hybrid sterility X 2 (Hstx2) genomic locus on Chromosome X (Chr X) by a still unknown mechanism. Here we investigated the meiotic recombination rate at the genome-wide level and its possible relation to hybrid sterility. Using immunofluorescence microscopy we quantified the foci of MLH1 DNA mismatch repair protein, the cytological counterparts of reciprocal crossovers, in a panel of inter-subspecific chromosome substitution strains. Two autosomes, Chr 7 and Chr 11, significantly modified the meiotic recombination rate, yet the strongest modifier, designated meiotic recombination 1, Meir1, emerged in the 4.7 Mb Hstx2 genomic locus on Chr X. The male-limited transgressive effect of Meir1 on recombination rate parallels the male-limited transgressive role of Hstx2 in hybrid male sterility. Thus, both genetic factors, the Prdm9 gene and the Hstx2/Meir1 genomic locus, indicate a link between meiotic recombination and hybrid sterility. A strong female-specific modifier of meiotic recombination rate with the effect opposite to Meir1 was localized on Chr X, distally to Meir1. Mapping Meir1 to a narrow candidate interval on Chr X is an important first step towards positional cloning of the respective gene(s) responsible for variation in the global recombination rate between closely related mouse subspecies.

Multimer Formation Explains Allelic Suppression of PRDM9 Recombination Hotspots.

Genetic recombination during meiosis functions to increase genetic diversity, promotes elimination of deleterious alleles, and helps assure proper segregation of chromatids. Mammalian recombination events are concentrated at specialized sites, termed hotspots, whose locations are determined by PRDM9, a zinc finger DNA-binding histone methyltransferase. Prdm9 is highly polymorphic with most alleles activating their own set of hotspots. In populations exhibiting high frequencies of heterozygosity, questions remain about the influences different alleles have in heterozygous individuals where the two variant forms of PRDM9 typically do not activate equivalent populations of hotspots. We now find that, in addition to activating its own hotspots, the presence of one Prdm9 allele can modify the activity of hotspots activated by the other allele. PRDM9 function is also dosage sensitive; Prdm9+/- heterozygous null mice have reduced numbers and less active hotspots and increased numbers of aberrant germ cells. In mice carrying two Prdm9 alleles, there is allelic competition; the stronger Prdm9 allele can partially or entirely suppress chromatin modification and recombination at hotspots of the weaker allele. In cell cultures, PRDM9 protein variants form functional heteromeric complexes which can bind hotspots sequences. When a heteromeric complex binds at a hotspot of one PRDM9 variant, the other PRDM9 variant, which would otherwise not bind, can still methylate hotspot nucleosomes. We propose that in heterozygous individuals the underlying molecular mechanism of allelic suppression results from formation of PRDM9 heteromers, where the DNA binding activity of one protein variant dominantly directs recombination initiation towards its own hotspots, effectively titrating down recombination by the other protein variant. In natural populations with many heterozygous individuals, allelic competition will influence the recombination landscape.

Interallelic and intergenic incompatibilities of the Prdm9 (Hst1) gene in mouse hybrid sterility.

The Dobzhansky-Muller model of incompatibilities explains reproductive isolation between species by incorrect epistatic interactions. Although the mechanisms of speciation are of great interest, no incompatibility has been characterized at the gene level in mammals. The Hybrid sterility 1 gene (Hst1) participates in the arrest of meiosis in F(1) males of certain strains from two Mus musculus subspecies, e.g., PWD from M. m. musculus and C57BL/6J (henceforth B6) from M. m. domesticus. Hst1 has been identified as a meiotic PR-domain gene (Prdm9) encoding histone 3 methyltransferase in the male offspring of PWD females and B6 males, (PWD×B6)F(1). To characterize the incompatibilities underlying hybrid sterility, we phenotyped reproductive and meiotic markers in males with altered copy numbers of Prdm9. A partial rescue of fertility was observed upon removal of the B6 allele of Prdm9 from the azoospermic (PWD×B6)F(1) hybrids, whereas removing one of the two Prdm9 copies in PWD or B6 background had no effect on male reproduction. Incompatibility(ies) not involving Prdm9(B6) also acts in the (PWD×B6)F(1) hybrids, since the correction of hybrid sterility by Prdm9(B6) deletion was not complete. Additions and subtractions of Prdm9 copies, as well as allelic replacements, improved meiotic progression and fecundity also in the progeny-producing reciprocal (B6×PWD)F(1) males. Moreover, an increased dosage of Prdm9 and reciprocal cross enhanced fertility of other sperm-carrying male hybrids, (PWD×B6-C3H.Prdm9)F(1), harboring another Prdm9 allele of M. m. domesticus origin. The levels of Prdm9 mRNA isoforms were similar in the prepubertal testes of all types of F(1) hybrids of PWD with B6 and B6-C3H.Prdm9 despite their different prospective fertility, but decreased to 53% after removal of Prdm9(B6). Therefore, the Prdm9(B6) allele probably takes part in posttranscriptional dominant-negative hybrid interaction(s) absent in the parental strains.

Fine haplotype structure of a chromosome 17 region in the laboratory and wild mouse.

Extensive linkage disequilibrium among classical laboratory strains represents an obstacle in the high-resolution haplotype mapping of mouse quantitative trait loci (QTL). To determine the potential of wild-derived mouse strains for fine QTL mapping, we constructed a haplotype map of a 250-kb region of the t-complex on chromosome 17 containing the Hybrid sterility 1 (Hst1) gene. We resequenced 33 loci from up to 80 chromosomes of five mouse (sub)species. Trans-species single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were rare between Mus m. musculus (Mmmu) and Mus m. domesticus (Mmd). The haplotypes in Mmmu and Mmd differed and therefore strains from these subspecies should not be combined for haplotype-associated mapping. The haplotypes of t-chromosomes differed from all non-t Mmmu and Mmd haplotypes. Half of the SNPs and SN indels but only one of seven longer rearrangements found in classical laboratory strains were useful for haplotype mapping in the wild-derived M. m. domesticus. The largest Mmd haplotype block contained three genes of a highly conserved synteny. The lengths of the haplotype blocks deduced from 36 domesticus chromosomes were in tens of kilobases, suggesting that the wild-derived Mmd strains are suitable for fine interval-specific mapping.

Conserved alternative and antisense transcripts at the programmed cell death 2 locus.

BACKGROUND: The programmed cell death 2 (Pdcd2) gene on mouse chromosome 17 was evaluated as a member of a highly conserved synteny, a candidate for an imprinted locus, and a candidate for the Hybrid sterility 1 (Hst1) gene. RESULTS: New mouse transcripts were identified at this locus: an alternative Pdcd2 mRNA skipping the last two coding exons and two classes of antisense RNAs. One class of the antisense RNA overlaps the alternative exon and the other the entire Pdcd2 gene. The antisense RNAs are alternative transcripts of the neighboring TATA-binding protein gene (Tbp) that are located mainly in the cell nucleus. Analogous alternative PDCD2 forms truncating the C-terminal domain were also detected in human and chicken. Alternative transcripts of the chicken PDCD2 and TBP genes also overlap. No correlation in the transcription of the alternative and overlapping mRNAs was detected. Allelic sequencing and transcription studies did not reveal any support for the candidacy of Pdcd2 for Hst1. No correlated expression of Pdcd2 with the other two genes of the highly conserved synteny was observed. Pdcd2, Chd1, and four other genes from this region were not imprinted in the embryo. CONCLUSION: The conservation of alternative transcription of the Pdcd2 gene in mouse, human and chicken suggests the biological importance of such truncated protein. The biological function of the alternative PDCD2 is likely to be opposite to that of the constitutive form. The ratio of the constitutive and alternative Pdcd2 mRNAs differs in the tissues, suggesting a developmental role. The identified Tbp-alternative Pdcd2-antisense transcripts may interfere with the transcription of the Pdcd2 gene, as they are transcribed at a comparable level. The conservation of the Pdcd2/Tbp sense-antisense overlap in the mouse and chicken points out its biological relevance. Our results also suggest that some cDNAs in databases labeled as noncoding are incomplete alternative cDNAs of neighboring protein-coding genes.

Comparative analysis of the PDCD2-TBP-PSMB1 region in vertebrates.

Three orthologous genes encoding programmed cell death 2 (PDCD2), TATA-binding protein (TBP), and proteasomal subunit C5 (PSMB1) proteins have been shown previously to be nonrandomly distributed in both mammalian and invertebrate genomes. Here we analyze a conserved synteny of the PDCD2, TBP, and PSMB1 orthologs in four nonmammalian vertebrates. Homologous genes of the chicken, zebrafish, fugu, and Tetraodon nigroviridis were identified. A chicken cosmid harboring the orthologs of these three genes was completely sequenced. The fish genes were analyzed in silico. In all seven vertebrates thus far investigated, the PDCD2 and TBP genes are located tail-to-tail. In six tested species but the zebrafish, the PSMB1 gene mapped head-to-head or in the close vicinity to the TBP, but even in the zebrafish, all three genes were syntenic. In contrast, a three times reused synteny breakpoint in the 5'-region from PDCD2 was detected. A comparative analysis revealed the distribution of putative matrix-attached regions (MARs), which may affect the synteny conservation.

Prdm9 incompatibility controls oligospermia and delayed fertility but no selfish transmission in mouse intersubspecific hybrids.

PR-domain 9 (Prdm9) is the first hybrid sterility gene identified in mammals. The incompatibility between Prdm9 from Mus musculus domesticus (Mmd; the B6 strain) and the Hstx2 region of chromosome (Chr) X from M. m. musculus (Mmm; the PWD strain) participates in the complete meiotic arrest of mouse intersubspecific (PWD×B6)F1 hybrid males. Other studies suggest that also semisterile intersubspecific hybrids are relevant for mouse speciation, but the genes responsible remain unknown. To investigate the causes of this semisterility, we analyzed the role of Prdm9 and Chr X in hybrids resulting from the crosses of PWK, another Mmm-derived inbred strain. We demonstrate that Prdm9 and Chr X control the partial meiotic arrest and reduced sperm count in (PWK×B6)F1 males. Asynapsis of heterosubspecific chromosomes and semisterility were partially suppressed by removal of the B6 allele of Prdm9. Polymorphisms between PWK and PWD on Chr X but not in the Prdm9 region were responsible for the modification of the outcome of Prdm9-Chr X F1 hybrid incompatibility. Furthermore, (PWK×B6)F1 hybrid males displayed delayed fertility dependent on the Prdm9 incompatibility. While the Drosophila hybrid sterility gene Overdrive causes both delayed fertility and increased transmission of its own chromosome to the offspring, the segregation of Chr X and the Prdm9 region from the mouse (PWK×B6)F1 males was normal. Our results indicate extended functional consequences of Prdm9-Chr X intersubspecific incompatibility on the fertility of hybrids and should influence the design of fertility analyses in hybrid zones and of laboratory crosses between Mmm and Mmd strains.

A mouse speciation gene encodes a meiotic histone H3 methyltransferase.

Speciation genes restrict gene flow between the incipient species and related taxa. Three decades ago, we mapped a mammalian speciation gene, hybrid sterility 1 (Hst1), in the intersubspecific hybrids of house mouse. Here, we identify this gene as Prdm9, encoding a histone H3 lysine 4 trimethyltransferase. We rescued infertility in male hybrids with bacterial artificial chromosomes carrying Prdm9 from a strain with the "fertility" Hst1(f) allele. Sterile hybrids display down-regulated microrchidia 2B (Morc2b) and fail to compartmentalize gammaH2AX into the pachynema sex (XY) body. These defects, seen also in Prdm9-null mutants, are rescued by the Prdm9 transgene. Identification of a vertebrate hybrid sterility gene reveals a role for epigenetics in speciation and opens a window to a hybrid sterility gene network.

Mouse consomic strains: exploiting genetic divergence between Mus m. musculus and Mus m. domesticus subspecies.

Consomic (chromosome substitution) strains (CSs) represent the most recent addition to the mouse genetic resources aimed to genetically analyze complex trait loci (QTLs). In this study, we report the development of a set of 28 mouse intersubspecific CSs. In each CS, we replaced a single chromosome of the C57BL/6J (B6) inbred strain (mostly Mus m. domesticus) with its homolog from the PWD/Ph inbred strain of the Mus m. musculus subspecies. These two progenitor subspecies diverged less than 1 million years ago and accumulated a large number of genetic differences that constitute a rich resource of genetic variation for QTL analyses. Altogether, the 18 consomic, nine subconsomic, and one conplastic strain covered all 19 autosomes, X and Y sex chromosomes, and mitochondrial DNA. Most CSs had significantly lower reproductive fitness compared with the progenitor strains. CSs homosomic for chromosomes 10 and 11, and the C57BL/6J-Chr X males, failed to reproduce and were substituted by less affected subconsomics carrying either a proximal, central, or distal part of the respective chromosome. A genome-wide scan of 965 DNA markers revealed 99.87% purity of the B6 genetic background. Thirty-three nonsynonymous substitutions were uncovered in the protein-coding regions of the mitochondrial DNA of the B6.PWD-mt conplastic strain. A pilot-phenotyping experiment project revealed a high number of variations among B6.PWD consomics.