Differential competition with cytotoxic agents: an approach to selectivity in cancer chemotherapy.

An approach to increasing the selectivity of cancer chemotherapeutic agents is presented in which noncytotoxic competitive substrates are used to discern the differences in structural requirements for transport of cytotoxic agents between tumor cells and a sensitive host tissue, the hematopoietic precursor cells of the bone marrow. Examples are given for two such systems, one responsible for the transport of nucleosides and another for the transport of amino acids. Cytidine is twice as effective in reducing the toxicity of showdomycin for murine bone marrow cells in culture as it is for murine L1210 leukemia cella. Conversely, homoleucine is twice as effective in reducing the toxicity of melphalan for L1210 cells as it is for bone marrow cells. These observations can serve as a basis for the development of bone marrow protective agents and for the design of cytotoxic agents that may be preferentially transported into tumor cells.

New carbon dioxide-independent basal growth medium for culture of diverse tumor and nontumor cells of human and nonhuman origin.

A eukaryotic growth medium (Program Development Research Group Basal Growth Medium) was developed for CO2-independent maintenance and propagation of human and nonhuman tumor cell lines representing diverse histologies (e.g., cancers of the brain, colon, lung, ovary, and kidney, as well as leukemia and melanoma). It was also shown to be suitable for the maintenance and propagation of nontumor cells of human and nonhuman derivation. The medium derives its buffering capacity primarily from beta-glycerophosphate, exhibits a stable physiologic pH of 7.3-7.4, and is optimized to facilitate growth in atmospheric CO2. It is also useful in cellular growth and cytotoxicity assays based on either the metabolic reduction of tetrazolium reagents or protein staining. The 50% inhibitory concentration values obtained with carmustine, doxorubicin, and tamoxifen in cell lines maintained in the new medium under atmospheric CO2 were closely comparable to those obtained with these drugs against cells maintained in RPMI-1640 under a 5% CO2 environment.

Feasibility of a high-flux anticancer drug screen using a diverse panel of cultured human tumor cell lines.

We describe here the development and implementation of a pilot-scale, in vitro, anticancer drug screen utilizing a panel of 60 human tumor cell lines organized into subpanels representing leukemia, melanoma, and cancers of the lung, colon, kidney, ovary, and central nervous system. The ultimate goal of this disease-oriented screen is to facilitate the discovery of new compounds with potential cell line-specific and/or subpanel-specific antitumor activity. In the current screening protocol, each cell line is inoculated onto microtiter plates, then preincubated for 24-28 hours. Subsequently, test agents are added in five 10-fold dilutions and the culture is incubated for an additional 48 hours. For each test agent, a dose-response profile is generated. End-point determinations of the cell viability or cell growth are performed by in situ fixation of cells, followed by staining with a protein-binding dye, sulforhodamine B (SRB). The SRB binds to the basic amino acids of cellular macromolecules; the solubilized stain is measured spectrophotometrically to determine relative cell growth or viability in treated and untreated cells. Following the pilot screening studies, a screening rate of 400 compounds per week has been consistently achieved.

New colorimetric cytotoxicity assay for anticancer-drug screening.

We have developed a rapid, sensitive, and inexpensive method for measuring the cellular protein content of adherent and suspension cultures in 96-well microtiter plates. The method is suitable for ordinary laboratory purposes and for very large-scale applications, such as the National Cancer Institute's disease-oriented in vitro anticancer-drug discovery screen, which requires the use of several million culture wells per year. Cultures fixed with trichloroacetic acid were stained for 30 minutes with 0.4% (wt/vol) sulforhodamine B (SRB) dissolved in 1% acetic acid. Unbound dye was removed by four washes with 1% acetic acid, and protein-bound dye was extracted with 10 mM unbuffered Tris base [tris (hydroxymethyl)aminomethane] for determination of optical density in a computer-interfaced, 96-well microtiter plate reader. The SRB assay results were linear with the number of cells and with values for cellular protein measured by both the Lowry and Bradford assays at densities ranging from sparse subconfluence to multilayered supraconfluence. The signal-to-noise ratio at 564 nm was approximately 1.5 with 1,000 cells per well. The sensitivity of the SRB assay compared favorably with sensitivities of several fluorescence assays and was superior to those of both the Lowry and Bradford assays and to those of 20 other visible dyes. The SRB assay provides a colorimetric end point that is nondestructive, indefinitely stable, and visible to the naked eye. It provides a sensitive measure of drug-induced cytotoxicity, is useful in quantitating clonogenicity, and is well suited to high-volume, automated drug screening. SRB fluoresces strongly with laser excitation at 488 nm and can be measured quantitatively at the single-cell level by static fluorescence cytometry.

Chemosensitization of L-phenylalanine mustard by the thiol-modulating agent buthionine sulfoximine.

Glutathione (GSH) plays a crucial role in the protection of normal and tumor tissue against the toxic effects of numerous chemotherapeutic drugs. Therefore, the possible therapeutic benefit of thiol depletion in cancer treatment is dependent upon the relative degree to which tumor or normal tissue is sensitized to the toxic effects of subsequent chemotherapy. To address this issue, the following studies on the chemosensitization of melphalan (L-PAM) by the thiol-depleting agent buthionine sulfoximine (BSO) were conducted in vivo in BDF mice inoculated with L-PAM-resistant murine L1210 leukemia. Different dosing regimens of BSO were found to potentiate L-PAM toxicity in a manner that depended upon the degree of GSH depletion. Multiple i.p. injections of BSO (450 mg/kg every 6 h X 5) were found to reduce GSH concentrations in most tissues by 70-80%, and to decrease the LD50 for L-PAM from 22 to 14 mg/kg. No two organs were found to behave entirely the same with respect to the rate of depletion or recovery of GSH, or to the maximum depletion that could be obtained by BSO. In this regard, the bone marrow was found to be the most resistant tissue to thiol depletion by BSO and was found to tolerate the combination of BSO and therapeutic doses of L-PAM. However, BSO pretreatment markedly inhibited the recovery of the peripheral WBC population at the LD10 dose of L-PAM. Differences also were found in the in vivo metabolism of GSH by L-PAM-sensitive and -resistant murine L1210 leukemia cells. The intracellular concentration of GSH in the resistant cell line was 1.6-fold higher than in the sensitive tumor. Moreover, GSH levels were depleted more rapidly in the resistant tumor relative to the sensitive cell line. A single injection of BSO decreased GSH concentrations in both tumors to equivalent levels (20 nmol/10(7) cells) within 24 h. However, multiple i.p. injections of BSO failed to produce a significant increase in the life-span of L-PAM-treated animals despite a 90% reduction in tumor GSH concentrations (5.5 nmol/10(7) cells). In contrast to the median day survival data, BSO was found to enhance the antitumor activity of L-PAM as determined by an in vivo/in vitro clonogenic assay or by in vivo thymidine incorporation. Using decreased thymidine incorporation as an index of antitumor activity, BSO was found to increase the therapeutic index (LD10/ED50) of L-PAM from 3.6 to 6.5.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Tetrazolium-based assays for cellular viability: a critical examination of selected parameters affecting formazan production.

The hydrogen acceptor 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5 diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) is commonly utilized to estimate cellular viability in drug screening protocols. The present investigation was prompted, in part, by observations that reduction of MTT to its colored reaction product, MTT formazan, varied between cell lines and with culture age. A correlation was established between the D-glucose concentration of the culture medium at the time of assay and the production of MTT formazan for cell lines representing seven tumor histologies. A decrease in the concentration of D-glucose from culture medium was accompanied by a decrease in MTT specific activity (MTT formazan/microgram cell protein) for a number of cell lines. Cells which extensively metabolized D-glucose exhibited the greatest reduction in MTT specific activity. Further evidence that the D-glucose concentration of the culture medium played an important role in MTT reduction was provided by experiments which demonstrated that transfer of cells to a glucose-free medium (L-15) was accompanied by an immediate decrease in MTT reduction which was pH independent. These studies suggested that cellular transport and constant metabolism of glucose were required for maximum MTT reduction. Decreases in the cellular concentration of the reduced pyridine nucleotides NADH and NADPH were accompanied by concomitant decreases in MTT formazan production. MTT formazan varied significantly among cell lines in both the kinetics of its formation and the degree of saturability exhibited. Apparent IC50 values for Adriamycin varied, in a cell line-specific manner, with MTT exposure time. These results indicate that MTT specific activity is significantly influenced by a number of parameters and suggest that assay conditions should be established which minimize their effects.

Rapid high-affinity transport of a chemotherapeutic amino acid across the blood-brain barrier.

The therapeutic efficacy of many anticancer drugs against intracerebral tumors is limited by poor uptake into the central nervous system. One way to enhance brain delivery is to design agents that are transported into the brain by the saturable nutrient carriers of the blood-brain barrier. In this paper, we describe a nitrogen mustard amino acid, DL-2-amino-7-bis[(2-chloroethyl)amino/bd-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-2-napthoi c acid, that is taken up into brain with high affinity by the large neutral amino acid carrier of the blood-brain barrier. Brain transport of DL-2-amino-7-bis[(2-chloroethyl)aminol-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-2-naphth oic acid in the rat was found to be rapid (cerebrovascular permeability-surface area product approximately 2 x 10(-2) ml/s/g), saturable and inhibitable by large neutral amino acids. Maximal influx rate (Vmax) and half-saturation (Km) constants equaled 0.26 nmol/min/g and 0.19 microM, respectively, in the parietal cortex. Regional brain uptake of acid exceeded that of the clinical analogue, melphalan, by greater than 20-fold. The results demonstrate that drug modification to produce high-affinity ligands for the cerebrovascular nutrient carriers is a viable means to enhance drug delivery to brain for the treatment of brain tumors and other central nervous system disorders.

Potentiation of melphalan cytotoxicity in human ovarian cancer cell lines by glutathione depletion.

The effectiveness of alkylating agents in the treatment of ovarian cancer is limited by the frequent development of drug resistance. In order to examine the mechanisms of resistance and potential ways in which this resistance could be overcome, we have developed a human ovarian cancer cell line, 1847ME, resistant to the bifunctional amino acid nitrogen mustard, melphalan. A 4-fold higher concentration of melphalan was required to produce an equivalent reduction in tumor colony formation in 1847ME cells as compared to the parent melphalan-sensitive line A1847. The magnitude of resistance in 1847ME was similar to that observed in the cell lines NIH:OVCAR-2, NIH:OVCAR-3, and NIH:OVCAR-4 which were derived from ovarian cancer patients clinically resistant to alkylating agents. There was no detectable difference in melphalan uptake between A1847 and 1847ME. The cellular content of the inactive dihydroxy melphalan metabolite, however, was two times greater in 1847ME compared to A1847. Levels of the principal intracellular thiol, glutathione, were found to be 2-fold greater in 1847ME than in A1847, and to be similarly elevated in the OVCAR lines. Depletion of glutathione by incubation of the cells in cystine-free medium or in the presence of the specific inhibitor of glutathione synthesis, DL-buthionine-S,R-sulfoximine, was accompanied by a marked increase in melphalan cytotoxicity. Doses of DL-buthionine-S,R-sulfoximine which were only minimally cytotoxic were associated with complete reversal of the induced resistance to melphalan in 1847ME. Synergism between melphalan and DL-buthionine-S,R-sulfoximine was also demonstrated in the OVCAR cell lines derived from previously treated ovarian cancer patients. The reversal of induced resistance to melphalan by modulation of glutathione levels is of potential clinical relevance. In addition, these cell lines provide a useful model system in which to study further the mechanisms of alkylating agent resistance in human tumors.

Arabinofuranosyl-5-azacytosine: antitumor and cytotoxic properties.

Arabinofuranosyl-5-azacytosine (ara-AC), a nucleoside combining the structural elements of 5-azacytidine and arabinofuranosylcytosine, exhibited unusually wide therapeutic activity against several murine leukemias and all three human xenografts of the National Cancer Institute tumor panel. Activity was observed following either a daily or an intermittent regimen of treatment in the i.p. L1210 model. However, when multiple doses were administered on each treatment day, a greater therapeutic effect was produced and the total dose was reduced. Extensive necrosis was observed by light and electron microscopy in P388 tumors treated with ara-AC. Following s.c. administration, ara-AC caused regression of the mammary and lung xenografts (MX-1 and LX-1) and a 93% inhibition of the human colon tumor (CX-1); other analogues of this drug failed to demonstrate a comparably broad spectrum of activity. Morphological assessment of treated xenografts revealed a general loss of cell-to-cell contact and abundant necrosis 24 h after the administration of ara-AC. In culture, the 50% inhibitory concentrations of ara-AC for P388 and L1210 cells at 24 h were 1.9 and 4.5 microM, respectively, and the decline in replication rates was dependent on drug concentration. The cytocidal nature of the drug was demonstrated by cloning experiments in which it was observed that ara-AC abolished the clonogenicity of lymphoblasts but was only minimally cytotoxic to normal murine bone marrow progenitor cells. As adjudged by flow cytometry, the drug induced a distinct slowing of cell cycle traverse through S phase. Induction of the differentiation of HL-60 cells in culture was another cytotropic effect of this drug. At 44% differentiation (10 microM ara-AC), 50% of the cultured cells were viable. Its broad spectrum antitumor activity, its selective toxicity to tumor cells, and its ability to produce cytodifferentiation render ara-AC of interest as a potential antineoplastic agent in humans.

Cytotoxicity as an indicator for transport mechanism: evidence that melphalan is transported by two leucine-preferring carrier systems in the L1210 murine leukemia cell.

Melaphan, L-phenylalanine mustard, is transported by the L1210 cell through carriers of the leucine (L) type. Its initial rate of transport is inhibited by both L-leucine, a naturally occuring L system amino acid and 2-aminobicyclo[2,2,1]heptane-2-carboxylic acid (BCH), A SYNTHETIC AMINO ACID WHICH IS TRANSPORTED BY THE L system in the Ehrlich ascites tumor cell. Both amino acids inhibited melphalan transport comparably in sodium-free medium. However, BCH, in medium containing sodium, was unable to reduce a component of melphalan transport which was readily inhibited by leucine but not by alpha-aminoisobutyric acid. Inhibition analysis indicated that leucine competes with BCH for transport but that a portion of leucine transport is not readily inhibited by BCH. These results suggest that in the L1010 cell melphalan is transported equally by a BCH-sensitive, sodium-independent L system and a BCH-insensitive, sodium-dependent L system.

Selective cytotoxicity of a system L specific amino acid nitrogen mustard.

The synthesis and characterization of DL-2-amino-7-bis[(2-chloroethyl)amino]-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-2-naphthoic acid and DL-2-amino-5-bis[(2-chloroethyl)amino]-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-2-napthoic+ ++ acid were accomplished. The correct assignment of the site of attachment of the bis(2-chloroethyl)amino side chain was ascertained by selective proton decoupling of the 13C NMR spectra performed on the corresponding nitrospirohydantoin precursors 2 and 3, which were obtained from the nitration of beta-tetralone hydantoin. The two target compounds 6 and 7 were designed as tumor-specific agents capable of being selectively transported into tumor cells by the leucine-preferring transport system (system L). Inhibition analysis of the initial rate of transport of the system L specific substrate 2-amino-bicyclo[2.2.1]heptane-2-carboxylic acid (BCH) by 6 and 7 indicated that the 7-substituted isomer 6 was an extremely potent competitive inhibitor of that transport system in murine L1210 leukemic cells (Ki = 0.2 microM). Evaluation of the selectivity of this compound indicated that it possessed enhanced in vitro antitumor activity and reduced myelosuppressive activity when compared to its prototype amino acid nitrogen mustard, L-phenylalanine mustard (L-PAM). In addition to being more selectively toxic to tumor cells, this compound differs from L-PAM in having a 2-3-fold shorter half-life (t1/2).

Anticancer specificity of some ellipticinium salts against human brain tumors in vitro.

Novel structure-activity relationships (SAR) distinct from known SAR for ellipticines have been revealed for certain ellipticinium salts. In particular, ellipticiniums such as the prototypical 9-methoxy-2-methylellipticinium (I- or OAc-) were found to be preferentially cytotoxic to the brain tumor cell line subpanel of the NCI 60 cell-line screening panel. Similar specificity also was apparent with 9-unsubstituted ellipticiniums, or others bearing 9-methyl or 9-chloro substituents. In contrast, 9-hydroxy-substituted ellipticiniums, as well as all nonquaternized ellipticines tested, were devoid of brain tumor specificity. Therefore, it did not appear that this unusual preference was correlated with the relative availability of redox cycling mechanisms, since redox cycling presumably is blocked in 9-methyl- and 9-chloroellipticiniums. Indeed, related investigations have indicated that the brain tumor specificity is mediated by preferential uptake and intracellular accumulation of the specific ellipticiniums. The present study further supports that the NCI in vitro "disease-oriented" primary screen can facilitate the discovery of novel, selectively cytotoxic leads for in vivo and mechanistic investigations.

A comparative cytogenetic study of melphalan-sensitive and -resistant murine L1210 leukemia cells.

A cytogenetic analysis of melphalan-sensitive and -resistant murine L1210 leukemia cells maintained in vivo indicated that the drug-resistant tumor had a modal number of 40 chromosomes while the sensitive tumor possessed a mode of 41 chromosomes. Two marker chromosomes were present in both the sensitive and the resistant tumors. One was of medium length with secondary constrictions, and the other was a minute chromosome. A single in vitro exposure of the sensitive tumor cells to a cytotoxic concentration of melphalan was not accompanied by a change in modal number but resulted in chromatid exchange. No alterations were found in resistant tumor cells which were exposed to the same drug concentration. However, exposure of resistant tumor cells to higher doses of melphalan resulted in chromatid breaks, chromatid gaps and the formation of acentric chromosomes. The resistant tumor, transplanted once without drug injection, maintained a sharp mode of 40 chromosomes.

Amino acid conferred protection against melphalan interference with melphalan therapy by L-leucine, a competitive substrate for transport.

Melphalan uptake by L1210 leukemia cells obtained from tumor bearing mice is reduced to one-third of control by physiological concentrations of L-leucine. Kinetic analysis revealed that melphalan and leucine compete for transport carrier sites. Administration of leucine with optimal therapeutic doses of melphalan to tumor bearing mice negated the efficacy of the drug.

Effect of L-alpha-amino-gamma-guanidinobutyric acid on melphalan therapy of the L1210 murine leukemia.

About half the mice administered a lethal inoculum of L1210 leukemia become 60-day survivors when treated with an appropriate dose of melphalan. Leucine completely abolishes this long-term survival by interfering with melphalan uptake into the tumor cells. L-alpha-Amino-gamma-guanidinobutyric acid, the lower homolog of arginine, promotes melphalan uptake in vitro only in the presence of leucine. When administered to mice with melphalan and a dose of leucine which negates the 50% cure rate of melphalan, it reduces the therapeutic interference of leucine. However, L-alpha-Amino-gamma-guanidinobutyric acid alone does not improve melphalan therapy, suggesting that endogenous leucine can play only a minor role in interference with therapy of the L1210 leukemia.

Uptake and cytotoxicity of 9-methoxy-N2-methylellipticinium acetate in human brain and non-brain tumor cell lines.

9-Methoxy-N2-methylellipticinium acetate (MMEA) was preferentially cytotoxic to human brain tumor cell lines in the in vitro primary screen of the U.S. National Cancer Institute. In the present study, the average intracellular accumulation of radioactivity derived from [14C]MMEA concentrations that were selectively cytotoxic to sensitive brain tumor cell lines was nearly 4-fold greater than in human tumor cell lines derived from the lung, kidney, ovary and colon. The extent of peak cellular accumulation of [14C]MMEA-derived radioactivity, achieved after 10-15 hr of drug exposure, was correlated positively with relative MMEA cytotoxicity in brain tumor cell lines (r2 = 0.963). A similar correlation (r2 = 0.967) was observed in selected non-brain tumor cell lines but required substantially higher (18-fold) concentrations of MMEA. [14C]MMEA radioactivity accumulation by a selected glioblastoma cell line occurred via an energy-requiring system that was predominantly sodium and pH independent.

Hepatic-mediated elevation and maintenance of metastatic tumor cell glutathione.

Metastatic migration of murine L1210 leukemia cells, sensitive and resistant to the antitumor agent L-phenylalanine mustard, from the peritoneal cavity of mice to the liver resulted in a 2-fold elevation in their GSH content. This increase in GSH was accompanied by a corresponding increase in their resistance to the drug. Cell surface binding studies with the non-penetrating disulfide, 6,6'-dithiodinicotinic acid, indicated that both tumors isolated from the liver had a greater than 5-fold elevation in surface sulfhydryls when compared to their ascitic counterparts. These results indicate a role for the hepatic microenvironment in the maintenance of tumor cell GSH, drug responsiveness, and surface sulfhydryls.

Selective toxicity of the tricyclic thiophene NSC 652287 in renal carcinoma cell lines: differential accumulation and metabolism.

The tricyclic compound 2,5-bis(5-hydroxymethyl-2-thienyl)furan (NSC 652287) has shown a highly selective pattern of differential cytotoxic activity in the tumor cell lines comprising the National Cancer Institute (NCI) Anticancer Drug Screen. The mechanism underlying the selective cytotoxicity is unknown. We hypothesized that differential sensitivity to the compound observed in several renal tumor cell lines could be the result of selective accumulation or differential metabolism of this agent. We demonstrated here that the capacity of certain renal cell lines to accumulate and retain the compound, determined by accumulation of [14C]NSC 652287-derived radioactivity and by flow cytometric determination of unlabeled compound, paralleled the sensitivity of the renal cell lines to growth inhibition by NSC 652287: A-498 > TK-10 >> ACHN approximately/= to UO-31. The ability of the cell lines to metabolize [14C]NSC 652287 to a reactive species capable of binding covalently to cellular macromolecules also directly correlated with sensitivity to the compound. Different patterns of metabolites were generated by relatively more drug-sensitive cell lines in comparison with drug-resistant cell lines. The metabolizing capacity for NSC 652287 was localized primarily to the cytosolic (S100) fraction. The rate of metabolism in the cytosolic fraction from the most sensitive renal cell line, A-498, was faster than that observed in the cytosolic fractions from the other, less sensitive cell lines. The data support the hypothesis that both selective cellular accumulation and the capacity to metabolize NSC 652287 to a reactive species by certain renal carcinoma cell types are the basis for the differential cytotoxicity of this compound class.

Steroid receptors and steroid response in cultured L1210 murine leukemia cells.

Murine L1210 leukemia cells were cultured in the presence of various steroid hormones to determine their growth response. Cells maintained in medium containing glucocorticoids such as dexamethasone exhibit a 10--20% inhibition of growth, whereas progesterone of 17 beta estradiol produce a 40--50% inhibition of growth. The response is due to growth inhibition and not to any cytolytic effect of the steroids. L1210 cytoplasmic and nuclear extracts contain high affinity binding sites for [3H]dexamethasone, [3H]progesterone and [3H]17 beta-estradiol. Competition with various steroids indicate that estrogens bind to one class of cytoplasmic binding sites, while glucocorticoids and progestins bind to a second class of receptor sites. These receptors appear not be be completely responsible for growth inhibition since there is no correlation between the magnitude of growth inhibition and the intracellular concentration of receptor sites, and since the concentration of steroid required to cause significant growth inhibition exceeds those concentrations required to saturate the cytoplasmic receptors.

Affinity of antineoplastic amino acid drugs for the large neutral amino acid transporter of the blood-brain barrier.

The relative affinity of six anticancer amino acid drugs for the neutral amino acid carrier of the blood-brain barrier was examined in rats using an in situ brain perfusion technique. Affinity was evaluated from the concentration-dependent inhibition of L-[14C]-leucine uptake into rat brain during perfusion at tracer leucine concentrations and in the absence of competing amino acids. Of the six drugs tested, five, including melphalan, azaserine, acivicin, 6-diazo-5-oxo-L-norleucine, and buthionine sulfoximine, exhibited only low affinity for the carrier, displaying transport inhibition constants (Ki, concentrations producing 50% inhibition) ranging from 0.09 to 4.7 mM. However, one agent - D,L-2-amino-7-bis[(2-chloroethyl)amino]- 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-2-naphthoic acid (D,L-NAM) - demonstrated remarkably high affinity for the carrier, showing a Ki value of approximately 0.2 microM. The relative affinity (1/Ki) of D,L-NAM was greater than 100-fold that of the other drugs and greater than 10-fold that of any compound previously tested. As the blood-brain barrier penetrability of most endogenous neutral amino acids is related to their carrier affinity, the results suggest that D,L-NAM may be a promising agent which may show enhanced uptake and distribution to brain tumors.