Rational design of self-amplifying virus-like vesicles with Ebola virus glycoprotein as vaccines.

As emerging and re-emerging pathogens, filoviruses, especially Ebola virus (EBOV), pose a great threat to public health and require sustained attention and ongoing surveillance. More vaccines and antiviral drugs are imperative to be developed and stockpiled to respond to unpredictable outbreaks. Virus-like vesicles, generated by alphavirus replicons expressing homogeneous or heterogeneous glycoproteins (GPs), have demonstrated the capacity of self-propagation and shown great potential in vaccine development. Here, we describe a novel class of EBOV-like vesicles (eVLVs) incorporating both EBOV GP and VP40. The eVLVs exhibited similar antigenicity as EBOV. In murine models, eVLVs were highly attenuated and elicited robust GP-specific antibodies with neutralizing activities. Importantly, a single dose of eVLVs conferred complete protection in a surrogate EBOV lethal mouse model. Furthermore, our VLVs strategy was also successfully applied to Marburg virus (MARV), the representative member of the genus Marburgvirus. Taken together, our findings indicate the feasibility of an alphavirus-derived VLVs strategy in combating infection of filoviruses represented by EBOV and MARV, which provides further evidence of the potential of this platform for universal live-attenuated vaccine development.

A Chimeric Classical Insect-Specific Flavivirus Provides Complete Protection Against West Nile Virus Lethal Challenge in Mice.

West Nile virus (WNV), an arthropod-borne flavivirus, can cause severe symptoms, including encephalitis, and death, posing a threat to public health and the economy. However, there is still no approved treatment or vaccine available for humans. Here, we developed a novel vaccine platform based on a classical insect-specific flavivirus (cISF) YN15-283-02, which was derived from Culicoides. The cISF-WNV chimera was constructed by replacing prME structural genes of the infectious YN15-283-02 cDNA clone with those of WNV and successfully rescued in Aedes albopictus cells. cISF-WNV was nonreplicable in vertebrate cells and nonpathogenic in type I interferon receptor (IFNAR)-deficient mice. A single-dose immunization of cISF-WNV elicited considerable Th1-biased antibody responses in C57BL/6 mice, which was sufficient to offer complete protection against lethal WNV challenge with no symptoms. Our studies demonstrated the potential of the insect-specific cISF-WNV as a prophylactic vaccine candidate to prevent infection with WNV.

Different Degrees of 5'-to-3' DAR Interactions Modulate Zika Virus Genome Cyclization and Host-Specific Replication.

Mosquito-borne flaviviruses, which include many important human pathogens, such as West Nile virus (WNV), dengue virus (DENV), and Zika virus (ZIKV), have caused numerous emerging epidemics in recent years. Details of the viral genome functions necessary for effective viral replication in mosquito and vertebrate hosts remain obscure. Here, using ZIKV as a model, we found that the conserved "downstream of AUG region" (DAR), which is known to be an essential element for genome cyclization, is involved in viral replication in a host-specific manner. Mutational analysis of the DAR element showed that a single-nucleotide mismatch between the 5' DAR and the 3' DAR had little effect on ZIKV replication in mammalian cells but dramatically impaired viral propagation in mosquito cells. The revertant viruses passaged in mosquito cells generated compensatory mutations restoring the base pairing of the DAR, further confirming the importance of the complementarity of the DAR in mosquito cells. We demonstrate that a single-nucleotide mutation in the DAR is sufficient to destroy long-range RNA interaction of the ZIKV genome and affects de novo RNA synthesis at 28°C instead of 37°C, resulting in the different replication efficiencies of the mutant viruses in mosquito and mammalian cells. Our results reveal a novel function of the circular form of the flavivirus genome in host-specific viral replication, providing new ideas to further explore the functions of the viral genome during host adaptation.IMPORTANCE Flaviviruses naturally cycle between the mosquito vector and vertebrate hosts. The disparate hosts provide selective pressures that drive virus genome evolution to maintain efficient replication during host alteration. Host adaptation may occur at different stages of the viral life cycle, since host-specific viral protein processing and virion conformations have been reported in the individual hosts. However, the viral determinants and the underlying mechanisms associated with host-specific functions remain obscure. In this study, using Zika virus, we found that the DAR-mediated genome cyclization regulates viral replication differently and is under different selection pressures in mammalian and mosquito cells. A more constrained complementarity of the DAR is required in mosquito cells than in mammalian cells. Since the DAR element is stably maintained among mosquito-borne flaviviruses, our findings could provide new information for understanding the role of flavivirus genome cyclization in viral adaptation and RNA evolution in the two hosts.

Short Direct Repeats in the 3' Untranslated Region Are Involved in Subgenomic Flaviviral RNA Production.

Mosquito-borne flaviviruses consist of a positive-sense genome RNA flanked by the untranslated regions (UTRs). There is a panel of highly complex RNA structures in the UTRs with critical functions. For instance, Xrn1-resistant RNAs (xrRNAs) halt Xrn1 digestion, leading to the production of subgenomic flaviviral RNA (sfRNA). Conserved short direct repeats (DRs), also known as conserved sequences (CS) and repeated conserved sequences (RCS), have been identified as being among the RNA elements locating downstream of xrRNAs, but their biological function remains unknown. In this study, we revealed that the specific DRs are involved in the production of specific sfRNAs in both mammalian and mosquito cells. Biochemical assays and structural remodeling demonstrate that the base pairings in the stem of these DRs control sfRNA formation by maintaining the binding affinity of the corresponding xrRNAs to Xrn1. On the basis of these findings, we propose that DRs functions like a bracket holding the Xrn1-xrRNA complex for sfRNA formation.IMPORTANCE Flaviviruses include many important human pathogens. The production of subgenomic flaviviral RNAs (sfRNAs) is important for viral pathogenicity as a common feature of flaviviruses. sfRNAs are formed through the incomplete degradation of viral genomic RNA by the cytoplasmic 5'-3' exoribonuclease Xrn1 halted at the Xrn1-resistant RNA (xrRNA) structures within the 3'-UTR. The 3'-UTRs of the flavivirus genome also contain distinct short direct repeats (DRs), such as RCS3, CS3, RCS2, and CS2. However, the biological functions of these ancient primary DR sequences remain largely unknown. Here, we found that DR sequences are involved in sfRNA formation and viral virulence and provide novel targets for the rational design of live attenuated flavivirus vaccine.

Replication-Defective West Nile Virus with NS1 Deletion as a New Vaccine Platform for Flavivirus.

We previously produced a replication-defective West Nile virus (WNV) lacking NS1 (WNV-ΔNS1) that could propagate at low levels (105 infectious units [IU]/ml) in a 293T cell line expressing wild-type (WT) NS1. This finding indicates the potential of developing WNV-ΔNS1 as a noninfectious vaccine. To explore this idea, we developed an NS1-expressing Vero cell line (VeroNS1) that significantly improved the yield of WNV-ΔNS1 (108 IU/ml). We evaluated the safety and efficacy of WNV-ΔNS1 in mice. WNV-ΔNS1 appeared to be safe, as no replicative virus was found in naive Vero cells after continuous culturing of WNV-ΔNS1 in VeroNS1 cells for 15 rounds. WNV-ΔNS1 was noninfectious in mice, even when IFNAR-/- mice were administered a high dose of WNV-ΔNS1. Vaccination with a single dose of WNV-ΔNS1 protected mice from a highly lethal challenge with WT WNV. The antibody response against WNV correlated well with the protection of vaccinated mice. Our study demonstrates the potential of the NS1 trans complementation system as a new platform for flavivirus vaccine development.IMPORTANCE Many flaviviruses are significant human pathogens that frequently cause outbreaks and epidemics around the world. Development of novel vaccine platforms against these pathogens is a public health priority. Using WNV as a model, we developed a new vaccine platform for flaviviruses. WNV containing a NS1 deletion (WNV-ΔNS1) could be efficiently trans complemented in Vero cells that constitutively expressed WT NS1 protein. A single-dose immunization with WNV-ΔNS1 elicited robust immune responses in mice. The immunized animals were fully protected against pathogenic WNV infection. No adverse effects related to the WNV-ΔNS1 vaccination were observed. The results have demonstrated the potential of the NS1 complementation system as an alternative platform for flavivirus vaccine development, especially for highly pathogenic flaviviruses.

Infectious Chikungunya Virus (CHIKV) with a Complete Capsid Deletion: a New Approach for a CHIKV Vaccine.

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is a mosquito-borne alphavirus that causes epidemics of debilitating disease worldwide. Currently, there are no licensed vaccines or antivirals available against CHIKV infection. In this study, we generated a novel live attenuated vaccine (LAV) candidate for CHIKV with a complete deficiency of capsid (ΔC-CHIKV). It could propagate in BHK-21 cells, and had antigenic properties similar to those of native CHIKV. Vaccination of either immunocompromised IFNAR-/- mice or immunocompetent C57BL/6 mice with a single dose of ΔC-CHIKV conferred complete protection upon challenge with wild-type (WT) CHIKV. Taken together, this vaccine candidate appeared to be safe and efficacious, representing a novel strategy for CHIKV vaccine design.IMPORTANCE Currently, there is no licensed vaccine against CHIKV infection. An ideal CHIKV vaccine should generate an optimal balance between efficacy and safety. Live attenuated vaccines that can elicit strong immune responses often involve a trade-off of reduced safety. Here, a novel live attenuated vaccine candidate for CHIKV lacking the entire capsid gene, ΔC-CHIKV, was developed. It was demonstrated to be genetically stable, highly attenuated, immunogenic, and able to confer complete protection against lethal CHIKV challenge after a single dose of immunization. Such an infectious vaccine candidate devoid of capsid provides a novel strategy for the development of a live attenuated CHIKV vaccine.

Development and evaluation of one-step multiplex real-time RT-PCR assay for simultaneous detection of Zika virus and Chikungunya virus.

Zika virus (ZIKV) and chikungunya virus (CHIKV) are important human pathogens and mosquito-borne arboviruses, which have resembling history, common vectors, circulating regions, and indistinguishable clinical symptoms. Wide geographical range that is suitable for ZIKV and CHIKV transmission underlines the concern about the impact of epidemic and endemic infections on burden of public health. In the present study, a highly sensitive and specific one-step multiplex real-time RT-PCR assay was developed and evaluated for simultaneous detection and quantification of ZIKV and CHIKV. The single reaction assay employs two pairs of primers and two TaqMan probes that differentiate ZIKV and CHIKV infections. The entire viral genomic RNA in vitro transcribed from full-length infectious clones were used to generate the standard curves for absolute quantification in subsequent tests. The detection limit of the one-step multiplex assay was 1 and 0.5 PFU for infectious ZIKV and CHIKV, respectively. The assessment of specificity indicated this assay is highly specific to targeted viruses showing no amplification of a variety of other flaviviruses. Our assay was able to detect geographically separated and phylogenetically diverse strains of ZIKV and CHIKV. On the applicability of monitoring viral multiplication in cells and testing clinical samples, the one-step multiplex assay provided efficient and accurate determination. The one-step multiplex real-time RT-PCR assay offers a valuable tool for detection of ZIKV and CHIKV and potentially contributes to general surveillance and clinical treatment.

Transmembrane Domains of NS2B Contribute to both Viral RNA Replication and Particle Formation in Japanese Encephalitis Virus.

UNLABELLED: Flavivirus nonstructural protein 2B (NS2B) is a transmembrane protein that functions as a cofactor for viral NS3 protease. The cytoplasmic region (amino acids 51 to 95) alone of NS2B is sufficient for NS3 protease activity, whereas the role of transmembrane domains (TMDs) remains obscure. Here, we demonstrate for the first time that flavivirus NS2B plays a critical role in virion assembly. Using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) as a model, we performed a systematic mutagenesis at the flavivirus conserved residues within the TMDs of NS2B. As expected, some mutations severely attenuated (L38A and R101A) or completely destroyed (G12L) viral RNA synthesis. Interestingly, two mutations (G37L and P112A) reduced viral RNA synthesis and blocked virion assembly. None of the mutations affected NS2B-NS3 protease activity. Because mutations G37L and P112A affected virion assembly, we selected revertant viruses for these two mutants. For mutant G37L, replacement with G37F, G37H, G37T, or G37S restored virion assembly. For mutant P112A, insertion of K at position K127 (leading to K127KK) of NS2B rescued virion assembly. A biomolecular fluorescent complementation (BiFC) analysis demonstrated that (i) mutation P112A selectively weakened NS2B-NS2A interaction and (ii) the adaptive mutation K127KK restored NS2B-NS2A interaction. Collectively, our results demonstrate that, in addition to being a cofactor for NS3 protease, flavivirus NS2B also functions in viral RNA replication, as well as virion assembly. IMPORTANCE: Many flaviviruses are important human pathogens. Understanding the molecular mechanisms of the viral infection cycle is essential for vaccine and antiviral development. In this study, we demonstrate that the TMDs of JEV NS2B participate in both viral RNA replication and virion assembly. A viral genetic study and a BiFC assay demonstrated that interaction between NS2B and NS2A may participate in modulating viral assembly in the flavivirus life cycle. Compensatory-mutation analysis confirmed that there was a correlation between viral assembly and NS2B-NS2A interaction. TMDs of NS2B may serve as novel antiviral targets to prevent flavivirus infection, and the structure determination of NS2B will help us to understand the functional mechanism of NS2B in viral RNA replication and assembly. The results have uncovered a new function of flavivirus NS2B in virion assembly, possibly through interaction with the NS2A protein.

Genetic interaction between NS4A and NS4B for replication of Japanese encephalitis virus.

Flavivirus NS4A and NS4B are important membrane proteins for viral replication that are assumed to serve as the scaffold for the formation of replication complexes. We previously demonstrated that a single Lys-to-Arg mutation at position 79 in NS4A (NS4A-K79R) significantly impaired Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) replication. In this study, the mutant virus was subject to genetic selection to search for the potential interaction between NS4A and other viral components. Sequencing of the recovered viruses revealed that, in addition to an A97E change in NS4A itself, a Y3N compensatory mutation located in NS4B had emerged from independent selections. Mutagenesis analysis, using a genome-length RNA and a replicon of JEV, demonstrated that both adaptive mutations greatly restored the replication defect caused by NS4A-K79R. Our results, for the first time to our knowledge, clearly showed the genetic interaction between NS4A and NS4B, although the mechanism underlying their interaction is unknown.

Comparison of genotypes I and III in Japanese encephalitis virus reveals distinct differences in their genetic and host diversity.

UNLABELLED: Japanese encephalitis (JE) is an arthropod-borne disease associated with the majority of viral encephalitis cases in the Asia-Pacific region. The causative agent, Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), has been phylogenetically divided into five genotypes. Recent surveillance data indicate that genotype I (GI) is gradually replacing genotype III (GIII) as the dominant genotype. To investigate the mechanism behind the genotype shift and the potential consequences in terms of vaccine efficacy, human cases, and virus dissemination, we collected (i) all full-length and partial JEV molecular sequences and (ii) associated genotype and host information comprising a data set of 873 sequences. We then examined differences between the two genotypes at the genetic and epidemiological level by investigating amino acid mutations, positive selection, and host range. We found that although GI is dominant, it has fewer sites predicted to be under positive selection, a narrower host range, and significantly fewer human isolates. For the E protein, the sites under positive selection define a haplotype set for each genotype that shows striking differences in their composition and diversity, with GIII showing significantly more variety than GI. Our results suggest that GI has displaced GIII by achieving a replication cycle that is more efficient but is also more restricted in its host range. IMPORTANCE: Japanese encephalitis is an arthropod-borne disease associated with the majority of viral encephalitis cases in the Asia-Pacific region. The causative agent, Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), has been divided into five genotypes based on sequence similarity. Recent data indicate that genotype I (GI) is gradually replacing genotype III (GIII) as the dominant genotype. Understanding the reasons behind this shift and the potential consequences in terms of vaccine efficacy, human cases, and virus dissemination is important for controlling the spread of the virus and reducing human fatalities. We collected all available full-length and partial JEV molecular sequences and associated genotype and host information. We then examined differences between the two genotypes at the genetic and epidemiological levels by investigating amino acid mutations, positive selection, and host range. Our results suggest that GI has displaced GIII by achieving a replication cycle that is more efficient but more restricted in host range.

Recovery of a chemically synthesized Japanese encephalitis virus reveals two critical adaptive mutations in NS2B and NS4A.

A full-length genome infectious clone is a powerful tool for functional assays in virology. In this study, using a chemical synthesized complete genome of Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) strain SA14 (GenBank accession no. U14163), we constructed a full-length genomic cDNA clone of JEV. The recovered virus from the cDNA clone replicated poorly in baby hamster kidney (BHK-21) cells and in suckling mice brain. Following serial passage in BHK-21 cells, adaptive mutations within the NS2B and NS4A proteins were recovered in the passaged viruses leading to viruses with a large-plaque phenotype. Mutagenesis analysis, using a genome-length RNA and a replicon of JEV, demonstrated that the adaptive mutations restored replication to different degrees, and the restoration efficiencies were in the order: NS2B-T102M

A simple and convenient 3D printed temporal bone model for drilling simulating surgery.

BACKGROUND: It is still far away from most of us in that it requires complex 3D modeling. AIMS/OBJECTIVES: To investigate a more precision, simple, convenient and economical three-dimensional (3D) printed temporal bone model printed by a commercial desktop 3D printer, which can be widely promoted and applied in the training of beginners in otology. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The CT data of the temporal bone were imported into Mimics to construct a 3D digital model of the temporal bone. After loaded into a high-precision 3D printer, a high-precision temporal bone model was printed at a scale of 1:1. Then, the model was evaluated by 5 senior attending physicians, including its morphological accuracy, simulation about surgery, advantages and educational value, using the 7-point Likert scale. RESULTS: A life-like temporal bone model was successfully printed out. Five senior attending physicians all thought that the printed model was similar to the natural temporal bone in physical properties and the haptic sensation of bone drilling, and was accurate, simple, convenient and effective. In addition, the model was considered to be of high application value in the teaching of temporal bone anatomy and surgery simulation, which had a material cost of only 3 dollars. CONCLUSIONS: The high-precision 3D printed temporal bone model is highly similar to the natural temporal bone, and can be conveniently and effectively used in the training of simulating temporal bone surgery for beginners in otology. Its production is simple and economical, so it can be popularized on a large scale.

Rational design of West Nile virus vaccine through large replacement of 3' UTR with internal poly(A).

The genus Flavivirus comprises numerous emerging and re-emerging arboviruses causing human illness. Vaccines are the best approach to prevent flavivirus diseases. But pathogen diversities are always one of the major hindrances for timely development of new vaccines when confronting unpredicted flavivirus outbreaks. We used West Nile virus (WNV) as a model to develop a new live-attenuated vaccine (LAV), WNV-poly(A), by replacing 5' portion (corresponding to SL and DB domains in WNV) of 3'-UTR with internal poly(A) tract. WNV-poly(A) not only propagated efficiently in Vero cells, but also was highly attenuated in mouse model. A single-dose vaccination elicited robust and long-lasting immune responses, conferring full protection against WNV challenge. Such "poly(A)" vaccine strategy may be promising for wide application in the development of flavivirus LAVs because of its general target regions in flaviviruses.

Protective Efficacy of Inactivated Vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Mice and Non-Human Primates.

The ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused more than 96 million infections and over 2 million deaths worldwide so far. However, there is no approved vaccine available for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the disease causative agent. Vaccine is the most effective approach to eradicate a pathogen. The tests of safety and efficacy in animals are pivotal for developing a vaccine and before the vaccine is applied to human populations. Here we evaluated the safety, immunogenicity, and efficacy of an inactivated vaccine based on the whole viral particles in human ACE2 transgenic mouse and in non-human primates. Our data showed that the inactivated vaccine successfully induced SARS-CoV-2-specific neutralizing antibodies in mice and non-human primates, and subsequently provided partial (in low dose) or full (in high dose) protection of challenge in the tested animals. In addition, passive serum transferred from vaccine-immunized mice could also provide full protection from SARS-CoV-2 infection in mice. These results warranted positive outcomes in future clinical trials in humans.

A replication-defective Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) vaccine candidate with NS1 deletion confers dual protection against JEV and West Nile virus in mice.

In our previous study, we have demonstrated in the context of WNV-ΔNS1 vaccine (a replication-defective West Nile virus (WNV) lacking NS1) that the NS1 trans-complementation system may offer a promising platform for the development of safe and efficient flavivirus vaccines only requiring one dose. Here, we produced high titer (107 IU/ml) replication-defective Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) with NS1 deletion (JEV-ΔNS1) in the BHK-21 cell line stably expressing NS1 (BHKNS1) using the same strategy. JEV-ΔNS1 appeared safe with a remarkable genetic stability and high degrees of attenuation of in vivo neuroinvasiveness and neurovirulence. Meanwhile, it was demonstrated to be highly immunogenic in mice after a single dose, providing similar degrees of protection to SA14-14-2 vaccine (a most widely used live attenuated JEV vaccine), with healthy condition, undetectable viremia and gradually rising body weight. Importantly, we also found JEV-ΔNS1 induced robust cross-protective immune responses against the challenge of heterologous West Nile virus (WNV), another important member in the same JEV serocomplex, accounting for up to 80% survival rate following a single dose of immunization relative to mock-vaccinated mice. These results not only support the identification of the NS1-deleted flavivirus vaccines with a satisfied balance between safety and efficacy, but also demonstrate the potential of the JEV-ΔNS1 as an alternative vaccine candidate against both JEV and WNV challenge.

Gemcitabine, lycorine and oxysophoridine inhibit novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) in cell culture.

The emerging SARS-CoV-2 infection associated with the outbreak of viral pneumonia in China is ongoing worldwide. There are no approved antiviral therapies to treat this viral disease. Here we examined the antiviral abilities of three broad-spectrum antiviral compounds gemcitabine, lycorine and oxysophoridine against SARS-CoV-2 in cell culture. We found that all three tested compounds inhibited viral replication in Vero-E6 cells at noncytotoxic concentrations. The antiviral effect of gemcitabine was suppressed efficiently by the cytidine nucleosides. Additionally, combination of gemcitabine with oxysophoridine had an additive antiviral effect against SARS-CoV-2. Our results demonstrate that broad-spectrum antiviral compounds may have a priority for the screening of antiviral compounds against newly emerging viruses to control viral infection.

Biochemical and antigenic characterization of the structural proteins and their post-translational modifications in purified SARS-CoV-2 virions of an inactivated vaccine candidate.

In the face of COVID-19 pandemic caused by the newly emerged SARS-CoV-2, an inactivated, Vero cell-based, whole virion vaccine candidate has been developed and entered into phase III clinical trials within six months. Biochemical and immunogenic characterization of structural proteins and their post-translational modifications in virions, the end-products of the vaccine candidate, would be essential for the quality control and process development of vaccine products and for studying the immunogenicity and pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2. By using a panel of rabbit antisera against virions and five structural proteins together with a convalescent serum, the spike (S) glycoprotein was shown to be N-linked glycosylated, PNGase F-sensitive, endoglycosidase H-resistant and cleaved by Furin-like proteases into S1 and S2 subunits. The full-length S and S1/S2 subunits could form homodimers/trimers. The membrane (M) protein was partially N-linked glycosylated; the accessory protein 3a existed in three different forms, indicative of cleavage and dimerization. Furthermore, analysis of the antigenicity of these proteins and their post-translationally modified forms demonstrated that S protein induced the strongest antibody response in both convalescent and immunized animal sera. Interestingly, immunization with the inactivated vaccine did not elicit antibody response against the S2 subunit, whereas strong antibody response against both S1 and S2 subunits was detected in the convalescent serum. Moreover, vaccination stimulated stronger antibody response against S multimers than did the natural infection. This study revealed that the native S glycoprotein stimulated neutralizing antibodies, while bacterially-expressed S fragments did not. The study on S modifications would facilitate design of S-based anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccines.

Infection with novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) causes pneumonia in Rhesus macaques.

The 2019 novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) outbreak is a major challenge for public health. SARS-CoV-2 infection in human has a broad clinical spectrum ranging from mild to severe cases, with a mortality rate of ~6.4% worldwide (based on World Health Organization daily situation report). However, the dynamics of viral infection, replication and shedding are poorly understood. Here, we show that Rhesus macaques are susceptible to the infection by SARS-CoV-2. After intratracheal inoculation, the first peak of viral RNA was observed in oropharyngeal swabs one day post infection (1 d.p.i.), mainly from the input of the inoculation, while the second peak occurred at 5 d.p.i., which reflected on-site replication in the respiratory tract. Histopathological observation shows that SARS-CoV-2 infection can cause interstitial pneumonia in animals, characterized by hyperemia and edema, and infiltration of monocytes and lymphocytes in alveoli. We also identified SARS-CoV-2 RNA in respiratory tract tissues, including trachea, bronchus and lung; and viruses were also re-isolated from oropharyngeal swabs, bronchus and lung, respectively. Furthermore, we demonstrated that neutralizing antibodies generated from the primary infection could protect the Rhesus macaques from a second-round challenge by SARS-CoV-2. The non-human primate model that we established here provides a valuable platform to study SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis and to evaluate candidate vaccines and therapeutics.

Low toxicity and high immunogenicity of an inactivated vaccine candidate against COVID-19 in different animal models.

The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic is causing huge impact on health, life, and global economy, which is characterized by rapid spreading of SARS-CoV-2, high number of confirmed cases and a fatality/case rate worldwide reported by WHO. The most effective intervention measure will be to develop safe and effective vaccines to protect the population from the disease and limit the spread of the virus. An inactivated, whole virus vaccine candidate of SARS-CoV-2 has been developed by Wuhan Institute of Biological Products and Wuhan Institute of Virology. The low toxicity, immunogenicity, and immune persistence were investigated in preclinical studies using seven different species of animals. The results showed that the vaccine candidate was well tolerated and stimulated high levels of specific IgG and neutralizing antibodies. Low or no toxicity in three species of animals was also demonstrated in preclinical study of the vaccine candidate. Biochemical analysis of structural proteins and purity analysis were performed. The inactivated, whole virion vaccine was characterized with safe double-inactivation, no use of DNases and high purity. Dosages, boosting times, adjuvants, and immunization schedules were shown to be important for stimulating a strong humoral immune response in animals tested. Preliminary observation in ongoing phase I and II clinical trials of the vaccine candidate in Wuzhi County, Henan Province, showed that the vaccine is well tolerant. The results were characterized by very low proportion and low degree of side effects, high levels of neutralizing antibodies, and seroconversion. These results consistent with the results obtained from preclinical data on the safety.