Capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry for creatinine analysis in residual clinical plasma samples and comparison with gold standard assay.

When hospitalized, infants, particularly preterm, are often subjected to multiple painful needle procedures to collect sufficient blood for metabolic screening or diagnostic purposes using standard clinical tests. For example, at least 100 µL of whole blood is required to perform one creatinine plasma measurement with enzymatic colorimetric assays. As capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry (CE-MS) utilizing a sheathless porous tip interface only requires limited amounts of sample for in-depth metabolic profiling studies, the aim of this work was to assess the utility of this method for the determination of creatinine in low amounts of plasma using residual blood samples from adults and infants. By using a starting amount of 5 µL of plasma and an injection volume of only 6.7 nL, a detection limit (S/N = 3) of 30 nM could be obtained for creatinine, and intra- and interday precisions (for peak area ratios) were below 3.2%. To shorten the electrophoretic separation time, a multi-segment injection (MSI) strategy was employed to analyze up to seven samples in one electrophoretic run. The findings obtained by CE-MS for creatinine in pretreated plasma were compared with the values acquired by an enzymatic colorimetric assay typically used in clinical laboratories for this purpose. The comparison revealed that CE-MS could be used in a reliable way for the determination of creatinine in residual plasma samples from infants and adults. Nevertheless, to underscore the clinical efficacy of this method, a subsequent investigation employing an expanded pool of plasma samples is imperative. This will not only enhance the method's diagnostic utility but also contribute to minimizing both the amount and frequency of blood collection required for diagnostic purposes.

Quantitation of oxidized and reduced albumin in mammals. An intriguing analytical question.

Oxidized albumin is considered a short-term biomarker of oxidative stress and its measurement in blood contributes to evaluate the impact of diseases, drugs, dialytic treatments, physical activity, environmental contaminants etc. on the red-ox balance of humans as well as of other mammalians. Nevertheless, the most common methods for quantifying the oxidized and reduced albumins are costly and time-consuming. Furthermore, there is a dearth of information regarding the proper ways to store human serum or plasma samples in order to prevent inaccurate quantification of these various albumin forms. This paper explores these aspects and proposes a few spectrophotometric assay procedures which make the quantitation of oxidized and reduced albumin very fast, precise and un-expensive in various mammals.

Polymer-enhanced peroxidase activity of ceria nanozyme for highly sensitive detection of alkaline phosphatase.

Nanoceria have demonstrated a wide array of catalytic activity similar to natural enzymes, holding considerable significance in the colorimetric detection of alkaline phosphatase (ALP), which is a biomarker of various biological disorders. However, the issues of physiological stability and formation of protein corona, which are strongly related to their surface chemistry, limit their practical application. In this work, CeO2 nanoparticles characterized by enhanced dimensional uniformity and specific surface area were synthesized, followed by encapsulation with various polymers to further increase catalytic activity and physiological stability. Notably, the CeO2 nanoparticles encapsulated within each polymer exhibited improved catalytic characteristics, with PAA-capped CeO2 exhibiting the highest performance. We further demonstrated that the PAA-CeO2 obtained with enhanced catalytic activity was attributed to an increase in surface negative charge. PAA-CeO2 enabled the quantitative assessment of AA activity within a wide concentration range of 10 to 60 µM, with a detection limit of 0.111 µM. Similarly, it allowed for the evaluation of alkaline phosphatase activity throughout a broad range of 10 to 80 U/L, with a detection limit of 0.12 U/L. These detection limits provided adequate sensitivity for the practical detection of ALP in human serum.

Single-step batch fabrication of microfluidic paper-based analytical devices with a 3D printer and their applications in nanoenzyme-enhanced visual detection of dopamine.

Wax printing is the most widely used method for fabricating microfluidic paper-based analytical devices (µPADs), but it still suffers from disadvantages like discontinuation of wax printers and need for additional equipment for heating treatment. To address these issues, this work initially describes a new class of wax printing approach for high-precision, batch fabrication of µPADs using a household 3D printer. It only involves a one patterning step of printing polyethylene wax into rice paper body. Under optimized parameters, a fabrication resolution, namely the minimum hydrophilic channel width, down to ~189 ± 30 µm could be achieved. In addition, the analytical applicability of such polyethylene wax-patterned µPADs was demonstrated well with enhanced colorimetric detection of dopamine as a model analyte by combining metal-organic framework (MOF) based nanoenzymes (ZIF-67) with a smartphone (for portable quantitative readout). The developed nanosensor could linearly detect dopamine over a concentration range from 10 to 1000 µM, with a detection limit of ca. 2.75 µM (3σ). The recovery results for analyzing several real samples (i.e., pig feed, chicken feed, pork and human serum) were between 91.82 and 102.79%, further validating its good detection accuracy for potential practical applications in food safety and medical diagnosis.

Simple, sensitive, colorimetric detection of pyrophosphate via the analyte-triggered decomposition of metal-organic frameworks regulating their adaptive multi-color Tyndall effect.

This paper describes initially the application of the Tyndall effect (TE) of metal-organic framework (MOF) materials as a colorimetric signaling strategy for the sensitive detection of pyrophosphate ion (PPi). The used MOF NH2-MIL-101(Fe) was prepared with Fe3+ ions and fluorescent ligands of 2-amino terephthalic acid (NH2-BDC). The fluorescence of NH2-BDC in MOF is quenched due to the ligand-to-metal charge transfer effect, while the NH2-MIL-101(Fe) suspension shows a strong TE. In the presence of PPi analyte, the MOFs will undergo decomposition because of the competitive binding of Fe3+ by PPi over NH2-BDC, resulting in a significant decrease in the TE signal and fluorescence restoration from the released ligands. The results demonstrate that the new method only requires a laser pointer pen (for TE creation) and a smartphone (for portable quantitative readout) to detect PPi in a linear concentration range of 1.25-800 µM, with a detection limit of ~210 nM (3σ) which is ~38 times lower than that obtained from traditional fluorescence with a spectrophotometer (linear concentration range, 50-800 µM; detection limit, 8.15 µM). Moreover, the acceptable recovery of PPi in several real samples (i.e., pond water, black tea, and human serum and urine) ranges from 97.66 to 119.15%.

Sensitive osteoarthritis sensing by salt-induced aggregation and dispersion of gold nanoparticles.

Osteoarthritis occurs in any joints, and identification in its earlier stages helps to treat the disease and increase the recovery rate. The radiography method and imaging techniques are traditionally used to identify osteoarthritis. But these methods are expensive, and with the complicated steps. Researchers are working toward developing a highly sensitive biosensor in identifying the osteoarthritis biomarker. This research was focused on developing a C-terminal telopeptide of type II collagen (CTX-II) colorimetric sensor with gold nanoparticle (AuNP) for diagnosing osteoarthritis. Anti-CTX-II was conjugated with AuNP and then added with CTX-II and sodium chloride for the color change. In the presence of CTX-II, antibody releases from AuNP then binds with CTX-II, and the color of AuNP changed to purple. Without the CTX-II, AuNP remains its red color (dispersed). This easier colorimetric assay detected the CTX-II as low as 2 ng/mL on linear regression [y = 0.0131x - 0.0051; R2 = 0.9205]. Furthermore, control performances with the relevant proteins osteopontin, IL-6, and nonimmune antibody failed to change the color confirming the specific identification of CTX-II.

Rapid detection of carbapenemase-producing gram-negative bacteria directly from blood culture bottles for a reliable guided empiric therapy.

Bloodstream infections (BSIs) caused by multidrug-resistant bacteria are a critical life-threatening challenge which necessitates the urgency to trigger life-saving treatment in a timely manner. This study aimed to evaluate the time required for rapid detection of carbapenemase-producing Enterobacterales (CPE) directly from blood culture bottles to optimize empirical treatment of BSI, especially in pediatric and infant patients, using a cost-effective method. This study included 419 Gram-negative bacteria, of which Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli were the most common CPE causing BSI in pediatric and neonatal patients. Phenotypic and genotypic resistance of the selected isolates (45 K. pneumoniae and 9 E. coli) were determined by VITEK-2 Compact system and PCR, respectively. BACT/ALERT bottles were spiked with isolates. Finally, colorimetric RESIST-BC assay and Vitek-2 compact system were evaluated for the rapid detection of carbapenem-resistant bacteria directly from positive blood culture bottles. All selected isolates were phenotypically resistant to carbapenems. PCR showed that blaNDM and blaOXA-48 were present in all isolates, blaVIM was present in 44.4%, while blaKPC and blaIMP were entirely absent. The RESIST-BC kit showed good agreement with PCR for blaNDM and blaOXA-48, demonstrating high sensitivity and specificity, but not with blaVIM. These findings point out that RESIST-BC assay demonstrated an exceptionally short detection time for CPE, completing all cases within the first hour after the blood culture bottles flagged positive. It is also superior in providing a clue for clinicians on antibiotic combinations that can be administered, depending on the type of ß-lactamases detected, promptly and efficiently, with low expenses.

Turn-off enzyme activity of histidine-rich peptides for the detection of lysozyme.

An assay that integrates histidine-rich peptides (HisRPs) with high-affinity aptamers was developed enabling the specific and sensitive determination of the target lysozyme. The enzyme-like activity of HisRP is inhibited by its interaction with a target recognized by an aptamer. In the presence of the target, lysozyme molecules progressively assemble on the surface of HisRP in a concentration-dependent manner, resulting in the gradual suppression of enzyme-like activity. This inhibition of HisRP's enzyme-like activity can be visually observed through color changes in the reaction product or quantified using UV-visible absorption spectroscopy. Under optimal conditions, the proposed colorimetric assay for lysozyme had a detection limit as low as 1 nM and exhibited excellent selectivity against other nonspecific interferents. Furthermore, subsequent research validated the practical applicability of the developed colorimetric approach to saliva samples, indicating that the assay holds significant potential for the detection of lysozymes in samples derived from humans.

Single substrate-functionalized molybdenum oxide nanozyme for specific colorimetric monitoring of xanthine oxidase activity.

Xanthine-functionalized molybdenum oxide nanodots (X-MoO3-x NDs) with peroxidase (POD)-like activity were developed for selective, sensitive, and facile colorimetric quantification of xanthine oxidase (XO). Xanthine functionalization can not only be favorable for the successful nanozyme preparation, but also for the specific recognition of XO as well as the simultaneous generation of hydrogen peroxide, which was subsequently transformed into hydroxyl radical to oxidize the chromogenic reagent based on the POD-like catalysis. Under the optimized conditions, the colorimetric biosensing platform was established for XO assay without addition of further substrates, showing good linearity relationship between absorbance difference (ΔA) and XO concentrations in the range 0.05-0.5 U/mL (R2 = 0.998) with a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.019 U/mL. The quantification of XO occurs in 25 min, which is superior to the previously reported and commercial XO assays. The proposed method has been successfully used in the assay of human serum samples, showing its high potential in the field of clinical monitoring.

MOF-derived nanozyme CuOx@C and its application for cascade colorimetric detection of phytosterols.

Phytosterols (PSs), a class of naturally occurring bioactive lipid compounds, have been found to possess a significant cholesterol-lowering effect. In developing countries, the consumption of rapeseed oil is the primary pathway of PS intake for the general population. However, developing low-cost, real-time, and high-throughput screening techniques for PSs remains a challenge. Here, a Cu-based nanocomposite CuOx@C was synthesized via a simple method of the calcination of HKUST-1 and systematically characterized by scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The CuOx@C demonstrated excellent peroxidase-like (POD-like) activity, functioning as a peroxidase mimic to facilitate the catalysis of 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) into its oxidized form (oxTMB), thereby initiating a discernible color response. On the basis of this discovery, a CuOx@C-based colorimetric method for detecting total sterols in rapeseed was successfully constructed via cascade reactions. After optimizing the conditions, the high-throughput screening of total sterols in rapeseed could be completed in only 21 min, which significantly facilitated the sensing of PSs. A linear range of 0.6-6 mg/g was achieved for the detection of total sterols in rapeseed samples, thereby satisfying the requirements for detection. In addition, due to the high stability of CuOx@C and the specificity of cholesterol oxidase, the developed method had excellent stability and selectivity toward PSs, indicating that this work has huge prospects for commercial application. This innovative work overcomes the limitation of the instrumental method and provides a portable and reliable tool for total sterols detection. It can also facilitate the development of oilseeds with a high content of PSs.

Superior oxidase-mimetic activity of FeCo-NC dual-atom nanozyme for smartphone-based visually colorimetric assay of organophosphorus pesticides.

A colorimetric analysis platform has been successfully developed based on FeCo-NC dual-atom nanozyme (FeCo-NC DAzyme) for the detection of organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs). The FeCo-NC DAzyme exhibited exceptional oxidase-like activity (OXD), enabling the catalysis of colorless TMB to form blue oxidized TMB (oxTMB) without the need for H2O2 involvement. By combining acid phosphatase (ACP) hydrolase with FeCo-NC DAzyme, a "FeCo-NC DAzyme + TMB + ACP + SAP" colorimetric system was constructed, which facilitated the rapid detection of malathion. The chromogenic system was applied to detect malathion using a smartphone-based app and an auxiliary imaging interferogram device for colorimetric measurements, which have a linear range of 0.05-4.0 µM and a limit of detection (LOD) as low as 15 nM in real samples, comparable to UV-Vis and HPLC-DAD detection methods. Overall, these findings present a novel approach for convenient, rapid, and on-site monitoring of OPPs.

Point-of-care blood tests using a smartphone-based colorimetric analyzer for health check-up.

A microscale colorimetric assay was designed and implemented for the simultaneous determination of clinical chemistry tests measuring six parameters, including glucose (GLU), total protein (TP), human serum albumin (HSA), uric acid (UA), total cholesterol (TC), and triglycerides (TGs) in plasma samples. The test kit was fabricated using chromogenic reagents, comprising specific enzymes and binding dyes. Multiple colors that appeared on the reaction well when it was exposed to each analyte were captured by a smartphone and processed by the homemade Check6 application, which was designed as a colorimetric analyzer and simultaneously generated a report that assessed test results against gender-dependent reference ranges. Six blood checkup parameters for four plasma samples were conducted within 12 min on one capture picture. The assay achieved wide working concentration ranges of 10.45-600 mg dL-1 GLU, 1.39-10.0 g dL-1 TP, 1.85-8.0 g dL-1 HSA, 0.86-40.0 mg dL-1 UA, 11.28-600 mg dL-1 TC, and 11.93-400 mg dL-1 TGs. The smartphone-based assay was accurate with recoveries of 93-108% GLU, 93-107% TP, 92-107% HSA, 93-107% UA, 92-107% TC, and 99-113% TGs. The coefficient of variation for intra-assay and inter-assay precision ranged from 3.2-5.2% GLU, 4.6-5.3% TP, 4.3-5.3% HSA, 2.8-6.6% UA, 2.7-6.5% TC, and 1.1-3.9% TGs. This assay demonstrated remarkable accuracy in quantifying the concentration-dependent color intensity of the plasma, even in the presence of other suspected interferences commonly present in serum. The results of the proposed method correlated well with results determined by the microplate spectrophotometer (R2 > 0.95). Measurement of these six clinical chemistry parameters in plasma using a microscale colorimetric test kit coupled with the Check6 smartphone application showed potential for real-time point-of-care analysis, providing cost-effective and rapid assays for health checkup testing.

Engineering an enzyme-like catalytic sensor for on-site dual-mode evaluation of total antioxidant capacity.

A novel Fe-MoOx nanozyme, engineered with enhanced peroxidase (POD)-like activity through strategic doping and the creation of oxygen vacancies, is introduced to catalyze the oxidation of TMB with high efficiency. Furthermore, Fe-MoOx is responsive to single electron transfer (SET) and hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) mechanisms related to antioxidants and can serve as a desirable nanozyme for total antioxidant capacity (TAC) determination. The TAC colorimetric platform can reach a low LOD of 0.512 µM in solution and 24.316 µM in the smartphone-mediated RGB hydrogel (AA as the standard). As proof of concept, the practical application in real samples was explored. The work paves a promising avenue to design diverse nanozymes for visual on-site inspection of food quality.

A smartphone-based colorimetric assay using Cu-tannic acid nanosheets (Cu-TA NShs) as a laccase-mimicking nanozyme for visual detection of quercetin in vegetables.

The interaction of Cu-tannic acid nanosheets (Cu-TA NShs) as nanozyme in a surfactant solution of CTAB under relatively acidic conditions is shown to exhibit a catalytic effect on quercetin (Qur). This catalytic property of Cu-TA NShs, which mimics laccase enzyme with many advantages, has been applied to developing a selective colorimetric sensor for the determination of trace amounts of Qur in vegetable samples. This strategy presents a desirable linear relationship between the absorbance signal intensity and the concentrations of Qur from 0.350 to 32.09 µM with a detection limit (LOD) of 0.064 µM (S/N = 3). The feasibility of the proposed portable colorimetric sensor for in situ analysis of the real samples has been validated with the high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method as reference method, and two-tailed test (t test) statistical analysis certifies good agreement between the results. This enzyme-free and sensitive naked-eye sensor with the smartphone-based color map is promising to provide technical support for the rapid and visual detection of Qur in vegetables.

Integration of Myrica rubra-based N-doped carbon dots with Fe3S4 as excellent peroxidase mimics for colorimetric assay and smartphone-based intelligent sensing of p-aminophenol in waters.

To realize the reutilization of waste Myrica rubra in the analytical field, we synthesized Myrica rubra-based N-doped carbon dots (MN-CDs) and further anchored them onto the surface of Fe3S4 to fabricate Fe3S4@MN-CD nanocomposites. The as-fabricated nanocomposites possessed higher peroxidase-mimetic activity than its two precursors, resulting from the synergistic effect between them, and could catalyze colorless 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) into deep blue oxTMB with a strong 652-nm absorption. Under optimized conditions (initial solution pH, 3.5; incubation temperature, 35 ℃; Fe3S4@MN-CD concentration, 50 µg mL-1, and 652-nm absorption), Fe3S4@MN-CDs were employed for colorimetric assay of p-aminophenol (p-AP) with wide linear range (LR, 2.9-100 µM), low detection limit (LOD, 0.87 µM), and satisfactory recoveries (86.3-105%) in environmental waters. Encouragingly, this colorimetric assay provided the relative accuracy of 97.0-99.4% as compared with  conventional HPLC-UV detection. A portable smartphone-based colorimetric application was developed by combining the Fe3S4@MN-CD-based visually chromogenic reaction with a "Thing Identify" APP software. Besides, we engineered an image-capturing device feasible for field use, in which the internal-compact sealing prevented external light source from entering photography chamber, thereby reducing light interference, and also the bottom light source enhanced the intensity of blue imaging. This colorimetric platform exhibited satisfactory LR (1-500 µM), low LOD (0.3 µM), and fortification recoveries (86.6-99.6%). In the chromogenic reaction catalyzed by Fe3S4@MN-CDs, ·O2- played a key role in concomitant with the participation of •OH and h+. Both the colorimetric assay and smartphone-based intelligent sensing show great promising in on-site monitoring of p-AP under field conditions.

DNA-Guided Extracellular-Vesicle Metallization with High Catalytic Activity for Accurate Diagnosis of Pulmonary Nodules.

Sensitive and specific analysis of extracellular vesicles (EVs) offers a promising minimally invasive way to identify malignant pulmonary nodules from benign lesions. However, accurate analysis of EVs is subject to free target proteins in blood samples, which compromises the clinical diagnosis value of EVs. Here a DNA-guided extracellular-vesicle metallization (DEVM) strategy is described for ultrasensitive and specific analysis of EV protein biomarkers and classification of pulmonary nodules. The facile DEVM process mainly includes the incorporation of DNA labeled with cholesterol and thiol groups into EV membranes and subsequent deposition of Au3+ and Pt4+ to allow the DNA-functionalized EVs to be encapsulated with AuPt nanoshells. It is found that the synthesized AuPt-metallized EVs possess extrinsic peroxidase-like activity. Utilizing the feature of the catalytic metal nanoshells just growth on the EV membranes, the DEVM method enables multiparametric recognition of target proteins and EV membranes and can produce an amplified colorimetric signal, avoiding the interference of free proteins. By profiling four surface proteins of EVs from 48 patients with pulmonary nodules, the highest area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (0.9983) is obtained. Therefore, this work provides a feasible EVs analysis tool for accurate pulmonary nodules management.

A Simple Colorimetric Assay of Bleomycin-Mediated DNA Cleavage Utilizing Double-Stranded DNA-Modified Gold Nanoparticles.

A colorimetric assay of DNA cleavage by bleomycin (BLM) derivatives was developed utilizing high colloidal stability on double-stranded (ds) DNA-modified gold nanoparticles (dsDNA-AuNPs) possessing a cleavage site. The assay was performed using dsDNA-AuNPs treated with inactive BLM or activated BLM (Fe(II)⋅BLM). A 10-min exposure in dsDNA-AuNPs with inactive BLM treatment resulted in a rapid color change from red to purple because of salt-induced non-crosslinking aggregation of dsDNA-AuNPs. In contrast, the addition of active Fe(II)⋅BLM retained the red color, probably because of the formation of protruding structures at the outermost phase of dsDNA-AuNPs caused by BLM-mediated DNA cleavage. Furthermore, the results of our model experiments indicate that oxidative base release and DNA-cleavage pathways could be visually distinguished with color change. The present methodology was also applicable to model screening assays using several drugs with different mechanisms related to antitumor activity. These results strongly suggest that this assay with a rapid color change could lead to simple and efficient screening of potent antitumor agents.

An Improved Spectrophotometric Method for Toluene-4-Monooxygenase Activity.

Monooxygenases, an important class of enzymes, have been the subject of enzyme engineering due to their high activity and versatile substrate scope. Reactions performed by these biocatalysts have long been monitored by a colorimetric method involving the coupling of a dye precursor to naphthalene hydroxylation products generated by the enzyme. Despite the popularity of this method, we found the dye product to be unstable, preventing quantitative readout. By incorporating an extraction step to solubilize the dye produced, we have improved this assay to the point where quantitation of enzyme activity is possible. Further, by incorporating spectral deconvolution, we have, for the first time, enabled independent quantification of the two possible regioisomeric products: 1-naphthol and 2-naphthol. Previously, such analysis was only possible with chromatographic separation, increasing the cost and complexity of analysis. The efficacy of our improved workflow was evaluated by monitoring the activity of a toluene-4-monooxygenase enzyme from Pseudomonas mendocina KR-1. Our colorimetric regioisomer quantification was found to be consistent with chromatographic analysis by HPLC. The development and validation of a quantitative colorimetric assay for monooxygenase activity that enables regioisomeric distinction and quantification represents a significant advance in analytical methods to monitor enzyme activity. By maintaining facile, low-cost, high-throughput readout while incorporating quantification, this assay represents an important alternative to more expensive chromatographic quantification techniques.

Au Nanozyme Driven Cascading Catalysis in Tollens' Reaction: An Insight of Glucose Oxidase-Like Mechanism.

Au nanoparticles (NPs) have been proven to be excellent glucose oxidase (GOx) mimics, which can catalyze the electrons transform pathway from glucose to oxygen. This study confirmed AuNPs can accelerate the reaction between [Ag(NH3 )2 ]+ and glucose under alkaline conditions, which is also known as the Tollens' reaction, and the possible mechanism was proposed. Here, [Ag(NH3 )2 ]+ instead of O2 acted directedly as an electron acceptor during glucose oxidation catalyzed by AuNPs, accompanied by hydrogen transfer. The as-synthesized Ag nanoparticles can also catalyze this process, similar to AuNPs, via a unique cascading catalysis mechanism in the Tollens' reaction. A simple and heatless glucose colorimetric assay can be established based on the plasmonic band of AgNPs with a liner range of 0.6-22.2 µM, and the limit of detection is 0.32 µM.

Bioconjugation of Meldrum's acid activated furan: A detergent compatible assay for protein quantitation.

A simple yet efficient assay for the quantitation of proteins ranging from plasma proteins to purified proteins from whole cell lysate, based on the bioconjugation reaction between protein and Meldrum's acid Activated Furan (MAF) is described. This easy to use, sensitive method is based on the conjugation of amine functionalities present on the protein with MAF to form the corresponding Donor Acceptor Stenhouse Adducts (DASAs) with characteristic absorption in the visible region. The reaction is rapid as well as reproducible and shows a proportionate increase in color change over a broad range of protein concentration. The assay was found to be sensitive up to 0.125 mg/mL concentration of the protein and was compatible with most of the commonly employed detergents and isolation protocols which makes it ideal for the estimation of protein samples containing detergents. Another striking feature of this protocol is its tolerance towards other major interference contributors such as chelating agents, reducing agents, carbohydrates and protease inhibitors.