Principal-agent theory-based cost and reimbursement structures of isavuconazole treatment in German hospitals.

BACKGROUND: Isavuconazole (ISA) is a frequently used antifungal agent for the treatment of invasive fungal diseases (IFDs). However, hospital reimbursement data for ISA is limited. OBJECTIVES: The primary objective of this study was to analyse the different perspectives of relevant stakeholders and the (dis)incentives for the administration of ISA in Germany. To that aim, the health economic effects of using ISA from a hospital management perspective were analysed. PATIENTS/METHODS: Based on principal-agent theory (PAT), the perspectives of (a) the patient (principal) as well as (b) physicians, (c) pharmacists and iv. hospital managers (all agents) were analysed. For the evaluation of the cost-containment and reimbursement strategies of ISA, the German diagnosis-related group (G-DRG) system was used. RESULTS: Hospitals individually negotiating additional payments for innovative treatment procedures (zusatzentgelte [ZE]) within the G-DRG system is a key element of hospital management for the reduction of total healthcare expenditure. Our analysis demonstrated the beneficial role of ISA in healthcare resource utilisation, primarily due to a shortened overall length of hospital stay. Depending on underlying disease, coded G-DRG and ISA formulation, large differences in total reimbursement and the amount of ZE was shown. The PAT demonstrated disincentives for hospital managers to use innovative drugs. CONCLUSIONS: Based on the PAT, beneficial, detrimental and indifferent perspectives of different stakeholders regarding the usage of ISA were shown. A reduction of bureaucratic hurdles is needed in Germany for the extension of effective and innovative antifungal treatment strategies with ISA.

In-hospital costs of community-acquired colonization with multidrug-resistant organisms at a German teaching hospital.

BACKGROUND: Antibiotic resistance is a challenge in the management of infectious diseases and can cause substantial cost. Even without the onset of infection, measures must be taken, as patients colonized with multi-drug resistant (MDR) pathogens may transmit the pathogen. We aim to quantify the cost of community-acquired MDR colonizations using routine data from a German teaching hospital. METHODS: All 2006 cases of documented MDR colonization at hospital admission recorded from 2011 to 2014 are matched to 7917 unexposed controls with the same primary diagnosis. Cases with an onset MDR infection are excluded from the analysis. Routine data on costs per case is analysed for three groups of MDR bacteria: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), vancomycin-resistant enterococcus (VRE), and multidrug-resistant gram-negative bacteria (MDR-GN). Multivariate analyses are conducted to adjust for potential confounders. RESULTS: After controlling for main diagnosis group, age, sex, and Charlson Comorbidity Index, MDR colonization is associated with substantial additional costs from the healthcare perspective (€1480.9, 95%CI €1286.4-€1675.5). Heterogeneity between pathogens remains. Colonization with MDR-GN leads to the largest cost increase (€1966.0, 95%CI €1634.6-€2297.4), followed by MRSA with €1651.3 (95%CI €1279.1-€2023.6), and VRE with €879.2 (95%CI €604.1-€1154.2). At the same time, MDR-GN is associated with additional reimbursements of €887.8 (95%CI €722.1-€1053.6), i.e. costs associated with MDR-colonization exceed reimbursement. CONCLUSIONS: Even without the onset of invasive infection, documented MDR-colonization at hospital admission is associated with increased hospital costs, which are not fully covered within the German DRG-based hospital payment system.

Pressure ulcers in German hospitals: Analysis of reimbursement and length of stay.

Objective: Hospital-acquired pressure ulcers are an important indicator of the quality of care. Most pressure ulcers are avoidable with a robust protocol for prevention, but prevention activities often have a low priority for senior management because the true costs to the hospital are not visible. Our aim was to raise awareness of the value of pressure ulcer prevention by estimating the excess length of inpatient stay associated with hospital-acquired pressure ulcers, and by assessing whether additional costs are covered by increased reimbursement. Methods: National activity data for hospitals in Germany are available through the InEK Data Browser. Data were extracted covering discharges from German hospitals between January 1 and December 31, 2021. Cases were selected according to the presence of a pressure ulcer diagnosis using ICD-10-GM codes L89.0-L89.3. Information was extracted for the ten most common German Diagnosis-Related Group (G-DRG) codes in patients with a secondary pressure ulcer diagnosis on mean length of stay and average reimbursement. Ulcer-associated excess length of stay was estimated by comparing cases within the same G-DRG with and without a pressure ulcer diagnosis. Results: Mean length of stay was higher in patients with a pressure ulcer than in patients with no ulcer by between 1.9 (all ages) and 2.4 days (patients aged ≥65) per case. In patients aged ≥65 years, 22.1% of cases with a pressure ulcer had a length of stay above the norm for the DRG. In the German system length of stay above the norm is not normally reimbursed. Excess length of stay between 1.9 and 2.4 days leads to a potential cost to a hospital of between 1,633€ and 2,074€ per case. Conclusion: Hospital-acquired pressure ulcers represent an important source of cost for a hospital which highlights the potential value of effective prevention.

Underfunding of German university-based high-performance medicine exemplified by the treatment of varices in cirrhosis.

Facing increasing economization in the health care sector, clinicians have to adapt not only to the ever-growing economic challenges, but also to a patient-oriented health care. Treatment costs are the most important variable for optimizing success when facing scarce human resources, increasing material- and infrastructure costs in general, as well as low revenue flexibility due to flat rates per case in Germany, the so-called Diagnosis-Related Groups (DRG). University hospitals treat many patients with particularly serious illnesses. Therefore, their share of complex and expensive treatments, such as liver cirrhosis, is significantly higher. The resulting costs are not adequately reflected in the DRG flat rate per case, which is based on an average calculation across all hospitals, which increases this economic pressure. Thus, the aim of this manuscript is to review cost and revenue structures of the management of varices in patients with cirrhosis at a university center with a focus on hepatology. For this monocentric study, the data of 851 patients, treated at the Gastroenterology Department of a University Hospital between 2016 and 2020, were evaluated retrospectively and anonymously. Medical services (e.g., endoscopy, radiology, laboratory diagnostics) were analyzed within the framework of activity-based-costing. As part of the cost unit accounting, the individual steps of the treatment pathways of the 851 patients were monetarily evaluated with corresponding applicable service catalogs and compared with the revenue shares of the cost center and cost element matrix of the German (G-) DRG system. This study examines whether university-based high-performance medicine is efficient and cost-covering within the framework of the G-DRG system. We demonstrate a dramatic underfunding of the management of varicose veins in cirrhosis in our university center. It is therefore generally questionable whether and to what extent an adequate care for this patient collective is reflected in the G-DRG system.

The impact of hospital-acquired infections on the patient-level reimbursement-cost relationship in a DRG-based hospital payment system.

Hospital-acquired infections (HAIs) are a common complication in inpatient care. We investigate the incentives to prevent HAIs under the German DRG-based reimbursement system. We analyze the relationship between resource use and reimbursements for HAI in 188,731 patient records from the University Medical Center Freiburg (2011-2014), comparing cases to appropriate non-HAI controls. Resource use is approximated using national standardized costing system data. Reimbursements are the actual payments to hospitals under the G-DRG system. Timing of HAI exposure, cost-clustering within main diagnoses and risk-adjustment are considered. The reimbursement-cost difference of HAI patients is negative (approximately - €4000). While controls on average also have a negative reimbursement-cost difference (approximately - €2000), HAI significantly increase this difference after controlling for confounding and timing of infection (- 1500, p < 0.01). HAIs caused by vancomycin-resistant Enterococci have the most unfavorable reimbursement-cost difference (- €10,800), significantly higher (- €9100, p < 0.05) than controls. Among infection types, pneumonia is associated with highest losses (- €8400 and - €5700 compared with controls, p < 0.05), while cost-reimbursement relationship for Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea is comparatively balanced (- €3200 and - €500 compared to controls, p = 0.198). From the hospital administration's perspective, it is not the additional costs of HAIs, but rather the cost-reimbursement relationship which guides decisions. Costs exceeding reimbursements for HAI may increase infection prevention and control efforts and can be used to show their cost-effectiveness from the hospital perspective.

The continuous downgrading of malnutrition in the German DRG system: possible effects on the treatment of patients at risk for malnutrition.

It has been internationally recognized that malnutrition is an independent risk factor for patients' clinical outcome. A new mandatory fixed price payment system based on diagnosis-related groups (G-DRG) went into effect in 2004. The aim of our study was to demonstrate the importance of carefully coding the secondary diagnosis of "malnutrition" in the G-DRG system and to highlight how the economic relevance of malnutrition in the G-DRG system has changed from 2014 to 2016. 1372 inpatients at the Berufsgenossenschaftliche Unfallklinik (Trauma Center) in Tübingen were screened for the risk of malnutrition using Nutritional Risk Screening (NRS-2002). Patient data were compared with the NRS values collected during the study and a case simulation was carried out separately for each year. We used the codes E44.0 for NRS = 3 and E43.0 for NRS > 3. The ICD codes were entered as an additional secondary diagnosis in the internal hospital accounting system DIACOS to determine possible changes in the effective weight. In 2014 the highest additional revenue by far was calculated by coding malnutrition. For the 638 patients enrolled in the study in 2014, we were able to calculate an average additional revenue per patient coded with malnourishment of €107. In 2016, we were unable to calculate any additional revenue for the 149 patients enrolled. Although it is well known that malnutrition is an independent risk factor for poor patient outcomes, nationwide screening for a risk of malnutrition when patients are admitted to a hospital is still not required. For this reason, malnutrition in German hospitals continues to be insufficiently documented. Due to the continuous downgrading of diagnosis-related severity (CCL) of malnutrition in the G-DRG system in trauma surgery patients, it is no longer possible to refinance the costs incurred by malnourished patients through the conscientious coding of malnutrition. We assume that the indirect positive effects of nutritional interventions will have to be taken into account more in the costing calculations and possibly lead to indirect cost compensation.

Accounting for What Matters to Patients in the G-DRG System: A Stakeholder's Perspective on Integrating Functioning Information.

Functioning information constitutes a relevant component for determining patients' service needs and respective resource use. Diagnosis-Related Group (DRG) systems can be optimized by integrating functioning information. First steps toward accounting for functioning information in the German DRG (G-DRG) system have been made; yet, there is no systematic integration of functioning information. The G-DRG system is part of the health system; it is embedded in and as such dependent on various stakeholders and vested interests. This study explores the stakeholder's perspective on integrating functioning information in the G-DRG system. A qualitative interview study was conducted with national stakeholders in 4 groups of the G-DRG system (health policy, administration, development, and consultations). Interviews were analyzed using inductive thematic analysis. In total, 14 interviews were conducted (4 administration and 10 consultation group). Three main themes were identified: (1) functioning information in the G-DRG system: opportunities and obstacles, (2) general aspects concerning optimizing G-DRG systems by integrating additional information, and (3) ideas and requirements on how to proceed. The study offers insights into the opportunities and obstacles of integrating functioning information in the G-DRG system. The relevance of functioning information was evident. However, the value of functioning information for the G-DRG system was seen critically. Integrating functioning information alone does not seem to be sufficient and a systems approach is needed.

["Something humane has been lost". Re-evaluation of the attitudes of senior physicians towards the G-DRG System - a qualitative normative analysis]. / "Etwas Menschliches ist verloren gegangen". Erfahrungen leitender Ärzte in Bezug auf das DRG-System ­ eine qualitativ-normative Analyse.

Only a few years after the implementation of the G-DRG (German Diagnosis Related Group) system physicians already began to complain of its negative effects on the quality of inpatient healthcare. The present study examines the recent experiences senior physicians have made with regard to the impact of the G-DRG system on the quality of healthcare and medical professionalism. Nine qualitative guided expert interviews were conducted focusing on the experiences of physicians in leading positions dealing with the G-DRG system in their everyday work. The interviewees report an intensification of work attributable to an increasing number of inpatient cases, a more lenient definition of medical indications and a reduction in patient retention time. The physicians interviewed have felt increasingly constrained by economic conditions. Additionally, they stated that the G-DRG system's incentive structure encourages the discrimination of older, care-dependent and multimorbid patients. Possible countermeasures include a political revision of incentive regulation as well as a strengthening of up-to-date professional ethical education and teaching.

The cost of post-burn scarring.

Deep burns lead to scarring and contractures for which there is little or no published data on treatment costs. The purpose of this study was to fill this gap by analysing treatment costs for burn sequelae. To do this, German-DRG for in-patient treatment was collected from the Burn Centre Lower Saxony. DRG-related T95.-coding served as a tool for burn-associated sequelae. Data on scar occurrence, plastic-reconstructive surgery and sick leave were collected by a questionnaire. The findings showed that 44.6% patients reported post-burn scarring and 31% needed surgical intervention. The expected risk for readmission was significantly higher (p=0.0002) with scars compared to without. Significantly higher costs for pressure garments were noted for scarred patients (p=0.04). No differences were found for ointments, silicone dressings or pain medication. Treatment costs for patients with scars were 5.6 times higher compared with no scar assessed by G-DRG. No differences were stated subsuming multiple readmissions for post-burn treatment per individual. Significantly higher costs (p=0.03) were noted for patients with burn sequelae other than scars with regard to individual readmissions. It has been revealed that treatment of scars causes higher costs than for other burn sequelae because of multiple surgical interventions. To reduce post-burn scarring and costs, specialized burn centres provide optimal and state-of-the-art treatment. As well as this, more emphasis should be laid on promoting research for the development of novel anti-scarring therapies.

Les brûlures profondes entraînent des cicatrices et des contractures pour lesquels il n'existe pas de données publiées dés coûts de traitement. Le but de cette étude était de combler cette lacune en analysant les coûts de traitement des séquelles de brûlures. Nous avons recueillies les données sur les séquelles de brûlure du Centre de Brûlés de Basse-Saxe en utilisant un questionnaire. Toutes les informations sur les cicatrices, la chirurgie plastique reconstructive et les congés de maladie ont été recueillies. Les résultats ont montré que 44.6% des patients avaient des cicatrices et 31% ont eu besoin d'une intervention chirurgicale. Le risque de réadmission était significativement plus élevé (p = 0,0002) parmi les patients avec des cicatrices. Pour ces patients les coûts étaient considérablement plus élevés pour les vêtements de compression (p = 0,04) mais, en ce qui concerne les pommades, les pansements siliconés ou les médicaments contre la douleur aucune différence n'a été trouvée. Les coûts de traitement pour les patients porteurs de cicatrices étaient 5,6 fois plus élevés par rapport aux patients sans aucune cicatrice. Les coûts plus élevés (p = 0,03) ont été observés chez les patients avec des séquelles de brûlures autre que cicatrices dues aux réadmissions individuelles. Nous avons noté aussi que le traitement des cicatrices entraîne des coûts plus élevés par rapport aux autres séquelles à cause des interventions chirurgicales multiples. Pour réduire les cicatrices post-brûlures, et donc les coûts, les centres spécialisés fournissent un meilleur traitement. De plus, l'accent devrait être mis sur la recherche pour le développement de nouvelles thérapeutiques anti-cicatrices.

Cost-effectiveness analysis of a vaccination program for the prevention of herpes zoster and post-herpetic neuralgia in adults aged 50 and over in Germany.

Herpes zoster (HZ; shingles) is a common viral disease that affects the nerves and surrounding skin causing a painful dermatomal rash and leading to debilitating complications such as, mainly, post-herpetic neuralgia (PHN). Currently, there is no effective treatment for HZ and PHN. The objective of this study was to assess the cost-effectiveness of a HZ vaccination program in Germany. An existing Markov Model was adapted to the German healthcare setting to compare a vaccination policy to no vaccination on a lifetime time-horizon, considering 2 scenarios: vaccinating people starting at the age of 50 or at the age of 60 years, from the perspective of the statutory health insurance (SHI) and the societal perspective. According to the perspective, vaccinating 20% of the 60+ German population resulted in 162,713 to 186,732 HZ and 31,657 to 35,793 PHN cases avoided. Corresponding incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICER) were 39,306 €/QALY from the SHI perspective and 37,417 €/QALY from a societal perspective. Results for the 50+ German population ranged from 336,468 to 394,575 HZ and from 48,637 to 56,087 PHN cases avoided from the societal perspective. Corresponding ICER were 39,782 €/QALY from a SHI perspective and 32,848 €/QALY from a societal perspective. Sensitivity analyses showed that results are mainly impacted by discount rates, utility values and use of alternative epidemiological data.The model indicated that a HZ vaccination policy in Germany leads to significant public health benefits and could be a cost-effective intervention. The results were robust and consistent with local and international existing literature.