Persistence of gender biases in Europe.

Prior work suggests that modern gender bias might have historical roots but has not been able to demonstrate long-term persistence of this bias due to a lack of historical data. We follow archaeological research and employ skeletal records of women's and men's health from 139 archaeological sites in Europe dating back, on average, to about 1200 AD to construct a site-level indicator of historical bias in favor of one gender over the other using dental linear enamel hypoplasias. This historical measure of gender bias significantly predicts contemporary gender attitudes, despite the monumental socioeconomic and political changes that have taken place since. We also show that this persistence is most likely due to the intergenerational transmission of gender norms, which can be disrupted by significant population replacement. Our results demonstrate the resilience of gender norms and highlight the importance of cultural legacies in sustaining and perpetuating gender (in)equality today.

Employment and workdays lost among spouses of cancer survivors: Intersection with gender across cancer treatment status.

BACKGROUND: Cancer patients and survivors have high care needs, often provided by a spouse or partner. The purpose of this study was to elucidate how employment and work loss patterns differed across cancer history/treatment status and gender. METHODS: Using nationally representative data from the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey (2011, 2016, and 2017), the authors linked data across married participants and categorized them by spouses' cancer treatment status (no cancer history, on treatment for cancer, off treatment for cancer). Multivariable logistic and zero-inflated negative binomial regressions were used to assess the associations among cancer history/treatment status, gender, and employment outcomes (employment status and workdays lost to care for self or others). RESULTS: For men, employment did not differ significantly by cancer history/treatment status (on treatment: odds ratio [OR], 0.58; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.33-1.02, off treatment: OR, 0.84; 95% CI, 0.62-1.14 vs. no cancer history). For women, employment was not significantly different when the spouse was on treatment for cancer compared to no cancer history (OR, 0.78; 95% CI, 0.33-1.86]) but was significantly increased for women whose spouse was off treatment (OR, 1.39; 95% CI, 1.05-1.84). Among employed participants, women whose spouse was on cancer treatment were nine times more likely to take days off work to provide care (OR, 9.52; 95% CI, 3.94-23.03) and took more than three times as many days off to care for others (OR, 3.21; 95% CI, 2.07-4.97) as men whose spouse had no cancer history. CONCLUSIONS: Wives of cancer survivors are at increased risk of work loss, with implications for their financial and psychological well-being. Employers, policymakers, and clinicians have opportunities to support working caregivers.

Observations on Gender Variance in Chinese Community Children Measured by the Gender Identity Questionnaire for Children.

Few studies have examined how gender variance (GV), broadly defined as gender identity and behaviors (e.g., activities and preferences) that do not correspond with culturally defined gender norms, manifests in community samples, particularly in children and outside Western contexts. We present data based on the Gender Identity Questionnaire for Children (GIQC; Johnson et al., 2004) among 461 Chinese community children (4-12 years old) to gauge how well the GIQC serves as a measure of GV and the prevalence of GV. We examined the descriptive scores of GV, its relationship to a gender-typing measure that has been validated in Chinese children (the Child Play Behavior and Activity Questionnaire, CPBAQ), the scores on the GIQC of children whose gender is incongruent with birth-assigned sex, and the binned category distributions (from gender-variant to gender-conforming) in comparison to a Canadian community sample (van der Miesen et al., 2018). The Chinese children on average scored toward the gender-conforming end and children assigned female at birth showed more GV than children assigned male at birth. More importantly, the GIQC appears to be a reliable and sensitive measure of GV in the Chinese sample. GIQC scores correlated significantly with CPBAQ scores and showed a very similar reliability coefficient, gender difference effect size, and bin distribution pattern as the Canadian reference sample. Also, children reported as gender/sex incongruent had the most gender-variant GIQC scores. Although clinically gender-referred Chinese children are required to establish culturally specific cutoff points, these findings provide initial evidence for the characteristics of GV, the applicability of the GIQC as a measure of GV in Chinese community children, and the comparisons of GIQC categories between Chinese and Canadian community samples.

Measuring the intangible resources caregivers need to provide nurturing care during the complementary feeding period: a scoping review in low- and lower-middle-income countries.

OBJECTIVE: Caregivers require tangible (e.g. food and financial) and intangible resources to provide care to ensure child health, nutrition and development. Intangible resources include beliefs and knowledge, education, self-efficacy, perceived physical health, mental health, healthy stress levels, social support, empowerment, equitable gender attitudes, safety and security and time sufficiency. These intangible caregiver resources are included as intermediate outcomes in nutrition conceptual frameworks yet are rarely measured as part of maternal and child nutrition research or evaluations. To facilitate their measurement, this scoping review focused on understudied caregiver resources that have been measured during the complementary feeding period in low- and lower-middle-income countries. DESIGN: We screened 9,232 abstracts, reviewed 277 full-text articles and included 163 articles that measured caregiver resources related to complementary feeding or the nutritional status of children 6 months to 2 years of age. RESULTS: We identified measures of each caregiver resource, though the number of measures and quality of descriptions varied widely. Most articles (77 %) measured only one caregiver resource, mental health (n 83) and social support (n 54) most frequently. Psychometric properties were often reported for mental health measures, but less commonly for other constructs. Few studies reported adapting measures for specific contexts. Existing measures for mental health, equitable gender attitudes, safety and security and time sufficiency were commonly used; other constructs lacked standardised measures. CONCLUSIONS: Measurement of caregiver resources during the complementary feeding period is limited. Measuring caregiver resources is essential for prioritising caregivers and understanding how resources influence child care, feeding and nutrition.

Gender roles produce divergent economic expectations.

Expectations about economic variables vary systematically across genders. In the domain of inflation, women have persistently higher expectations than men. We argue that traditional gender roles are a significant factor in generating this gender expectations gap as they expose women and men to different economic signals in their daily lives. Using unique data on the participation of men and women in household grocery chores, their resulting exposure to price signals, and their inflation expectations, we document a tight link between the gender expectations gap and the distribution of grocery shopping duties. Because grocery prices are highly volatile, and consumers focus disproportionally on positive price changes, frequent exposure to grocery prices increases perceptions of current inflation and expectations of future inflation. The gender expectations gap is largest in households whose female heads are solely responsible for grocery shopping, whereas no gap arises in households that split grocery chores equally between men and women. Our results indicate that gender differences in inflation expectations arise due to social conditioning rather than through differences in innate abilities, skills, or preferences.

Development of the Arabic Inventory of Parent and Domestic Worker Attachment (A-IPDWA): A tool to assess adolescents' attachment to secondary figures.

INTRODUCTION: Adolescents' attachment security toward parental figures has been assessed in multiple cultures and languages. In some cultural contexts, the presence of a secondary parental figure is ubiquitous, though its effect on children's and adolescents' well-being has been understudied. The present study aimed to validate a culture-specific Arabic instrument of attachment security, in an adolescent sample of Qatar. Since foreign domestic workers (Khadama) play a key role as secondary caring figures in Middle Eastern countries, the new instrument included parents (i.e., mother and father) and domestic workers as providers of attachment security. METHODS: A sample of 387 adolescents (ages 12-17 years; 48.3% females) participated in the study in the 2020-2021 school term. While 286 students completed the version in modern Arabic, 101 counterparts attending international schools filled in the English version for comparison purposes. RESULTS: Confirmatory Factor Analysis for all three forms (i.e., mother, father, and domestic worker) showed the one-dimension of the Arabic tool. Optimal Tucker's Phi coefficient indicated a comparable one-factor structure of attachment security across linguistic versions. Moderate correlations (positive and negative, respectively) of attachment security towards father and mother (but not towards domestic workers) with family cohesion and family conflict dimensions of the Family Environment Scale provided evidence for the concurrent validity. DISCUSSION: Gender differences in the links between adolescents' attachment security and family conflict were observed; culturally relevant relationship family patterns are stressed. The practical implications of the Arabic Inventory of Parent and Domestic Worker Attachment (A-IPDWA) validation are discussed.

Gender roles as predictive factors on labor pain: a cross-sectional study.

Labor is a complex, subjective experience, and all factors that influence pain should be considered to ensure a comprehensive evaluation. This study aimed to determine whether gender roles were predictive of labor pain. The study has a descriptive and cross-sectional design. It was carried out in a delivery room of a city hospital in Turkey between September 2019 and September 2020. The study sample consisted of 231 primiparous women presenting for labor and delivery. Data were gathered with a descriptive characteristics form, Visual Analogue Scale and The Bem Sex-Role Inventory. Descriptive statistics and simple regression analysis were employed to analyze the obtained data. Regression analysis demonstrated that gender roles were predictive of labor pain in the latent, active, and transitional stages, but not in the second stage. Gender roles were most responsible for labor pain in the latent phase. Results of the study revealed that gender roles may be useful variables to predict women's labor pain, and contributed to the relevant literature. Nurses and midwives offering care for labor pain should consider gender roles as a factor affecting labor pain. It is also necessary to individualize the supporting care given during labor.

Unpacking the link between cousin marriage and women's paid work.

The debate surrounding the role of cousin marriage in women's autonomy, household status, and labor supply is longstanding and marked by contradictory viewpoints. Some studies suggest that cousin marriage enhances women's situation in the household, while others argue it restricts their freedoms and economic prospects. Despite this ongoing debate, quantitative investigations are limited. This study uses a sample of 15,068 married women from the Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey 2017-18 to examine the link between cousin marriage and women's labor supply patterns. The findings suggest a modest correlation between cousin marriage and reduced paid work. However, cousin marriage appears to have a more pronounced connection with women's work at home, potentially channeling them toward unpaid work for kin. Women in cousin marriages are unlikely to experience improved status within the household compared to women in non-cousin marriages. They are also more likely to rationalize acts of spousal violence in favor of patriarchal familial roles. In this regard, cousin marriage could potentially perpetuate patriarchal gender roles by penalizing women who deviate from conventional norms.

Explaining the urban-rural gradient in later fertility in Europe.

Demographic research shows that, in Europe, fertility takes place later and is lower in cities than in rural areas. One might expect fertility to be delayed in urban areas because of longer periods in education and enhanced career opportunities. We, therefore, examine how prevalent later fertility (35+ and 40+) is along the urban-rural axis, and whether differences can be explained by economic, cultural and compositional factors. We estimate multilevel random coefficient models, employing aggregated Eurostat data of 1328 Nomenclature des unités territoriales statistiques (NUTS) 3 and 270 NUTS 2 regions from 28 European countries. The urban-rural gradient in later fertility considerably diminishes once factors describing the economic environment, family and gender norms as well as population composition are accounted for. The higher prevalence of later fertility in cities is particularly associated with higher female education, greater wealth and a higher share of employment in high-technology sectors.

Transformation: From (Trans-)Gender Roles to Profiles.

Combining a philosophical approach with empirical psychology, this essay investigates the relationship between "profilicity," the formation of identity in orientation to profiles, and gender identity. We discuss empirical research that indicates a significant difference between transgender identity in traditional (collectivist) and modern (individualist) societies. We suggest that this difference is due to a shift in the formation of gender identity away from gender roles and toward gender profiles. To substantiate this claim, we first outline a basic theoretical terminology of identity and gender. Then, we critically analyze the representation of gender, including transgender, in contemporary popular culture. Finally-with a descriptive, but not therapeutic intention-we discuss several case studies of identity formation of transgender people. We conclude that theoretical problems arising from historical shifts in gender identity formation, including transgender identity formation, are best conceptualized in terms of profilicity rather than in the still prevailing semantics of authenticity.

Perception of gender norms and its association with bullying behavior among adolescent students.

BACKGROUND: Inequitable gender norms are increasingly seen as a risk to health and well-being. Although adolescence represents a critical phase of development before adulthood, there is limited understanding about adolescents' perception of gender norms in Egypt. Adolescents' nonconformity with stereotypical gender norms is suspected to increase their exposure to bullying behavior. This study aimed to explore the adolescents' perception of gender norms - especially towards romantic relations and stereotypical gender traits and roles - and its association with bullying behavior among school children. METHODS: A cross-sectional study of a sample of 400 students 11-17 years from 10 public schools in Aswan city, Egypt was conducted. Data were collected via interviewer-administered questionnaires using the Gender Norms Scales and School Life Survey tool for bullying. RESULTS: School adolescents of both sexes showed no significant difference with respect to their attitudes towards romantic relationships engagement, but boys were slightly more permissive about romantic relationships than girls (54.4%, 46.1%, respectively). On the other hand, girls were significantly more likely to indicate agreement with a sexual double standard regarding boy/girl relationships than boys (75% vs. 46.4%, P < 0.001). Regarding gender stereotypical traits, girls' and boys' perception showed no significant difference, but boys had more endorsement, and 64.3% of boys perceived more agreement with gender stereotypical traits compared to 57.4% of girls. Also, boys were more likely to express more agreement with stereotypical gender roles than girls (74% vs. 52.9%, P < 0.001). However, 51% of students agreed that it was okay to tease a boy who acted like a girl, and 27.5% agreed that it was okay to tease a girl who acted like a boy. Students' status of bullying and victimization was not significantly associated with any studied gender norms concept. CONCLUSIONS: Perception of unequal gender norms starts early in adolescence. Boys are more accepting of heteronormative relations among adolescents and more likely to endorse stereotypical gender roles than girls, while girls are more conservative and more likely to perceive a sexual double standard regarding boy/girl relationships. Moreover, adolescents of both genders perceived more agreement with deserving sanctions for atypical gender behaviors in boys with higher perception in boys compared to girls. However, both boys' and girls' perception of gender is not related to their status of bullying and victimization. This has important implications for understanding the development of gender norms and their impact on adolescent behavior and social interactions.

Prenatal Sex Role Stereotypes: Gendered Expectations and Perceptions of (Expectant) Parents.

People assign attributes to a different degree to other persons depending on whether these are male or female (sex role stereotypes). Such stereotypes continue to exist even in countries with lower gender inequality. The present research tested the idea that parents develop sex role consistent expectations of their babies' attributes based on fetal sex (by ultrasound diagnostic), as well as gendered perceptions of their recently newborn babies. A total of 304 dyads of predominantly White expecting parents from Germany were followed over the course of pregnancy until after the birth and completed a sex role inventory on their babies' expected (before birth) as well as perceived traits (after birth). Specifically, they rated to what extent they expected their babies to have normatively feminine traits (e.g., soft-spoken and warm) and normatively masculine traits (e.g., independent and assertive) twice before birth (first half of pregnancy, six weeks before due date) and to what extent they perceived their baby to have these traits eight weeks after birth. The results suggested that fathers held gendered expectations and perceptions, whereas mothers did not. These results suggest that male and female babies are likely to encounter sex role stereotypes about their alleged attributes as soon as their birth.

Gender norms and access to sexual and reproductive health services among women in the Marrakech-Safi region of Morocco: a qualitative study.

INTRODUCTION: Improving access to sexual and reproductive health remains a public health challenge, especially for women, whose access is affected by several determinants, such as gender inequality, which is the underlying barrier to all other determinants. Many actions have been carried out, but much remains to be done before all women and girls can exercise their rights. This study aimed to explore how gender norms influence access to sexual and reproductive health services. METHOD: A qualitative study was conducted from November 2021 to July 2022. The inclusion criteria were women and men aged over 18 years old, living in the urban and rural areas of the Marrakech-Safi region in Morocco. A purposive sampling method was used to select participants. Data were obtained through semi-structured interviews and focus groups with selected participants. The data were coded and classified using thematic content analysis. RESULTS: The study highlighted inequitable, restrictive gender norms that lead to stigmatization and affect the sexual and reproductive healthcare-seeking behavior and access of girls and women in the Marrakech-Safi region. These most common gender norms for women include parental refusal, stigmatization, and social exclusion of girls from sexual and reproductive health education services; strong decision-making power of family members over contraceptive use and women's adherence to pregnancy monitoring and access to supervised delivery; and culturally constructed role allocation, assigning a reproductive role to women and making them responsible for the health of new-borns. CONCLUSION: Sexual and reproductive health projects must strive to be gender sensitive. Gender-blind projects are missed opportunities to improve health outcomes and advance gender equality.

Gender roles perceptions and ideal number of children: case study of Emirati youth.

BACKGROUND: The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is a traditional society with patriarchal values. The country has been experiencing a decline in fertility rates, bringing the total fertility rate for the national population to 3.3 children per woman, the lowest since 1970s. Existing literature indicates that having gender-egalitarian attitudes is associated with lower fertility rates. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the perceptions of gender roles among the highly educated Emirati youth and examine whether these attitudes influence their desire to have children. By doing so, we aim to gain insights into the factors contributing to the country's declining fertility rates. METHODS: This study utilized data from a cross-sectional quantitative survey. The survey was developed and administered in February-March 2019 to a purposive sample of 300 young Emirati males and females aged 18-30 years, studying at the UAE University. Both bivariate and multivariate analysis were performed to examine the levels of youths' perception towards gender roles and desired fertility. RESULTS: The data collected from Emirati youths revealed that 50% of them supported the traditional perspective on marriage, 30% considered motherhood is the most important thing for women, and a small percentage supported economic independence of women and husband participation in household chores/child-rearing. On average Emirati youth ideally wished to have 5.4 children in their future families, with a preference for sons over daughters. Youths who favoured women's economic independence and equal participation in household work contribution by spouses desired a lower number of children which is in line with the modernization theory and cultural evolution. CONCLUSION: The UAE has been facing continuous decline in fertility rates. The study indicates that ideal number of children is much higher than the current fertility rates in the country. To bridge this gap, the government could implement family policies that create an environment conducive to fulfilling the ideal desires of young Emiratis regarding family size. Moreover, present findings indicate that perceptions of equal gender roles could be a contributing factor to the declining fertility rates among the young generation. Promoting gender equality attitudes and strengthening institutional support for childbearing could become key strategy to address these issues.

Sex and gender differences in primary care help-seeking for common somatic symptoms: a longitudinal study.

OBJECTIVE: Women are reported to consult general practitioners (GPs) more frequently than men. However, previous studies on sex differences in help-seeking behavior for somatic symptoms do not distinguish between sex and gender, do not account for sex differences in presented symptoms, and are frequently conducted in clinical settings, automatically excluding non-help seekers. Therefore, we aim to assess the independent associations of sex and gender with primary care help-seeking for somatic symptoms in the general population. DESIGN AND SETTING: Records from the longitudinal population-based Lifelines Cohort Study were linked to routine electronic health records from GPs. SUBJECTS: Participants reporting new-onset common somatic symptoms. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Associations between sex and gender, operationalized via a novel gender-index, with primary care help-seeking for somatic symptoms and differences in the strength of the association between gender and help-seeking for somatic symptoms between women and men. RESULTS: Of 20,187 individuals with linked data, 8325 participants (67.5% female; mean age = 44.5 years [SD = 12.9]) reported at least one new-onset somatic symptom. Hereof, 255 (3.1%) consulted the GP within 6 weeks of symptom onset. Female sex was positively associated with consulting the GP (OR = 1.78; 95%CI = 1.13-2.80), whereas feminine gender was not (OR = 0.67; 95%CI = 0.39-1.16). The latter association did not differ in strength between men and women. More paid working days are negatively associated with help-seeking (OR = 0.95; 95%CI = 0.91-0.98). CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that female sex rather than feminine gender is associated with primary care help-seeking behavior for somatic symptoms. Nevertheless, clinicians should be aware that gender-related variables, such as mean paid working days, may be associated with help-seeking behavior.

Adolescent boys' and girls' perspectives on social norms surrounding child marriage in Nepal.

According to recent data, in Nepal, 38.2% of women aged 20-24 years are married by the age of 18. This analysis of CARE's Tipping Point Initiative seeks to compare Nepali adolescent boys' and girls' perceptions of empirical and normative expectations around child, early and forced marriage. A baseline survey of 1,134 adolescent girls and 1,154 adolescent boys provided 11 items for descriptive quantitative analysis. Thirty in-depth interviews and 16 focus groups were conducted with young people aged 12-16 years and analysed using modified Grounded Theory. Themes in the data produced thick descriptions of gender roles/responsibilities, employment, mobility and marriage. Comparisons by gender of normative and empirical expectations, and sanctions on child, early and forced marriage were produced. Gender roles/responsibilities underpin social norms for mobility, marriage and employment, and are connected by subthemes with a focus on responsibility for household chores, interaction between unmarried adolescents, education/financial stability, honour/reputation, and parental decision-makers). Participants agreed on gendered labour, women's employment, and parents as decision-makers. Areas of disagreement included repercussions for interactions between unmarried adolescents, girls' mobility, attributes of the ideal woman, and maintaining family honour. Programming recommendations include focusing on the inter-relatedness of boys' and girls' wellbeing, communication between girls and parents, and structural support for education Research recommendations include identifying factors underlying sexual harassment and constructs of masculinity and femininity.

Money, chores and emotional support: Kenyan and Zambian fathers' perceptions of male partner involvement in maternal and infant health within the context of HIV.

In sub-Saharan Africa, involving male partners in the prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV improves maternal and infant outcomes. Male involvement is typically conceptualised as male partners attending antenatal care, which is difficult for many men. Little is known about how men view their involvement in family health within the context of HIV, particularly outside of clinic attendance. Through interviews with 35 male partners of pregnant or postpartum women living with HIV in Kenya and Zambia, this study elicited perceptions of male involvement in maternal and infant health in families affected by HIV. Men supported the importance of clinic attendance but reported conflicts with the need to work and fulfil their role as the family's financial provider. Providing money for necessities was deemed more critical for their family's health than clinic attendance. Men's involvement was conveyed through various other supportive actions, including helping with household chores and providing emotional support (showing love and reducing women's stress). Future strategies to promote male partner involvement in the prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV and maternal and child health should build upon the actions men view as most meaningful to promote their family's health within their real-world life circumstances and cultural context, particularly their role as financial providers.

Alcohol use among adult recent Latino/a immigrants: the role of stress, forced migration, and adherence to traditional gender roles.

Background: Previous research conducted among Latino/a immigrants has shown the underlying effect that exposure to stress after immigrating to the U.S. (i.e. health access, racial/ethnic discrimination, and language barriers) has on alcohol use patterns. However, given the demographic shifts in recent immigrants, understanding the influence of stress before (i.e. poverty, healthcare, and educational opportunities) and after immigration on their alcohol use (i.e. alcohol consumption and drinking behaviors in the past 12 months) in the context of migration and traditional gender roles is warranted.Objectives: To examine the (a) cumulative effects of pre- to post-immigration stress, (b) respective moderating effects of traditional gender roles, and (c) forced migration on alcohol use for men and women.Methods: Hierarchical multiple regression and moderation analyses were conducted on a cross-sectional sample of 529 (N = 268 men, N = 261 women) adult (18-34 years) from recent Latino/a immigrants in South Florida.Results: Gender had a statistically significant difference on alcohol use, (F 527) = 18.68, p < .001, with men (p = 4.36 ± SE =.22) reporting higher alcohol use than women (p = 3.08 ± SE =.20). Post-immigration stress (ß = .12, p = .03) but not pre-migration stress had a statistically significant association with alcohol use. There is no interaction effect by traditional gender roles and forced migration on the associations between pre- to post-immigration stress and alcohol use.Conclusion: Results suggest that post-immigration stress may be a reasonable intervention target to mitigate alcohol use among recent Latino/a immigrants, particularly among men.

Discordance between Adolescents and Parents in Functional Somatic Symptom Reports: Sex Differences and Future Symptom Prevalence.

Functional somatic symptoms, i.e., physical complaints that cannot be sufficiently explained by an objectifiable biomedical abnormality, become increasingly more prevalent in girls than in boys during adolescence. Both parents and adolescents report more functional somatic symptoms in girls, but their reports correspond only limitedly. It remains unknown whether parent-adolescent discordance contributes to the higher symptom prevalence in girls. This study investigated parent-adolescent discordance in reported functional somatic symptoms throughout adolescence, examined the longitudinal association of parent-adolescent discordance with symptom prevalence in early adulthood and focused on sex differences in these processes. Participants included 2229 adolescents (50.7% female) from four assessments (age 11 to 22 years) of the TRAILS population cohort. Parents and adolescents reported significantly more symptoms in girls than in boys during adolescence. Variance analyses showed that throughout adolescence, parents reported fewer symptoms than girls self-reported and more than boys self-reported. Regression analyses using standardized difference scores showed that lower parent-report than self-report was positively associated with symptom prevalence in early adulthood. Polynomial regression analyses revealed no significant interaction between parent-reported and adolescent self-reported symptoms. Associations did not differ between boys and girls. The findings show that lower parent-reported than self-reported symptoms predict future symptom prevalence in both sexes, but this discordance was more observed in girls. The higher functional somatic symptom prevalence in girls might be partly explained by parental underestimation of symptoms.

Differences by age group in gender-related attitudes in Oromia, Ethiopia: Findings from a cross-sectional study of women of reproductive age.

Attitudes on gender roles affect decision-making dynamics, resource distribution, and income-generating opportunities. However, little is known about how attitudes on gender roles differ by age group. Cross-sectional data collected from 1,113 households in Oromia, Ethiopia were used to assess differences in gender-related attitudes across female "youth" (ages 15-24), "young adults" (ages 25-34), and "older adults" (ages 35-49). Fifteen survey questions using a Likert scale measured attitudes on sexual and reproductive behaviors, expectations around livelihood activities, and perceived influence in household decision making. Associations between attitudes and age group were assessed using the Chi-squared test. Measures of perceived influence in decision making differed significantly by age group for household decisions about participation in wage employment, and use of revenue generated from wage employment, and crop and livestock production. Response patterns were consistent, with youth least likely to feel they have influence in decision making. The results suggest that policies and programs should continue to support the agency of female youth.