Children's oppositional defiant disorder symptoms and neural synchrony in mother-child interactions: An fNIRS study.

Interpersonal neural synchrony (INS) between mothers and children responds to the temporal similarity of brain signals in joint behavior between dyadic partners and is considered an important neural indicator of the formation of adaptive social interaction bonds. Parent-child interactions are particularly important for the development and maintenance of oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) in children, but the underlying neurocognitive mechanisms are unknown. Therefore, in the current study we measured INS between mothers and children in interactions by using simultaneous functional Near-infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS), and explored its association with ODD symptoms in children. Seventy-two mother-child dyads were recruited to participate in the study, including 35 children with ODD and 37 healthy children to be used as a control. Each mother-child dyad was measured for neural activity in frontal, parietal, and temporal lobe regions while completing free-play as well as positive, and negative topic discussion tasks. We used Phase-locked value to calculate the synchrony strength and then used the K-means algorithm and k-space based alignment tests to confirm the specific patterns of parent-child synchrony in different brain areas. The results showed that, in free-play (right MFG and bilateral SFG), positive (left TPJ and bilateral SFGdor), and negative (bilateral SFGmed, right ANG, and left MFG) topic discussions, the mother-child pairs showed different patterns of INS. These specific INS patterns were significantly lower in the ODD group compared to the control group and were negatively associated with ODD symptoms in children. Network analyses showed that these INS patterns were connected to different nodes in the ODD symptom network. Our findings suggest that ODD mother-child dyads exhibit lower neural synchrony across a wide range of parent-child interactions. Neural synchrony in the context of interpersonal interactions provides new insights into understanding the neural mechanisms of ODD and can be used as an indicator of neural and socio-environmental factors in the network of psychological disorder symptoms.

Visualizing the invisible tie: Linking parent-child neural synchrony to parents' and children's attachment representations.

It is a central tenet of attachment theory that individual differences in attachment representations organize behavior during social interactions. Secure attachment representations also facilitate behavioral synchrony, a key component of adaptive parent-child interactions. Yet, the dynamic neural processes underlying these interactions and the potential role of attachment representations remain largely unknown. A growing body of research indicates that interpersonal neural synchrony (INS) could be a potential neurobiological correlate of high interaction and relationship quality. In this study, we examined whether interpersonal neural and behavioral synchrony during parent-child interaction is associated with parent and child attachment representations. In total, 140 parents (74 mothers and 66 fathers) and their children (age 5-6 years; 60 girls and 80 boys) engaged in cooperative versus individual problem-solving. INS in frontal and temporal regions was assessed with functional near-infrared spectroscopy hyperscanning. Attachment representations were ascertained by means of the Adult Attachment Interview in parents and a story-completion task in children, alongside video-coded behavioral synchrony. Findings revealed increased INS during cooperative versus individual problem solving across all dyads (𝛸2(2) = 9.37, p = 0.009). Remarkably, individual differences in attachment representations were associated with INS but not behavioral synchrony (p > 0.159) during cooperation. More specifically, insecure maternal attachment representations were related to higher mother-child INS in frontal regions (𝛸2(3) = 9.18, p = 0.027). Conversely, secure daughter attachment representations were related to higher daughter-parent INS within temporal regions (𝛸2(3) = 12.58, p = 0.006). Our data thus provide further indication for INS as a promising correlate to probe the neurobiological underpinnings of attachment representations in the context of early parent-child interactions. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: We assessed attachment representations using narrative measures and interpersonal neural synchrony (INS) during parent-child problem-solving. Dyads including mothers with insecure attachment representations showed higher INS in left prefrontal regions. Dyads including daughters with secure attachment representations showed higher INS in right temporo-parietal regions. INS is a promising correlate to probe the neurobiological underpinnings of attachment representations in the context of parent-child interactions, especially within the mutual prediction framework.

A context-dependent perspective to understand the relation between parent-child physiological synchrony and child socioemotional adjustment.

Physiological synchrony is an important biological process during which parent-child interaction plays a significant role in shaping child socioemotional adjustment. The present study held a context-dependent perspective to examine the conditional association between parent-child physiological synchrony and child socioemotional adjustment (i.e., relationship quality with parents and child emotion regulation) under different (i.e., from highly unsupportive to highly supportive) emotional contexts. One hundred and fifty school-age Chinese children (Mage = 8.64 years, 63 girls) and their primary caregivers participated in this study. After attaching electrocardiogram (ECG) electrodes, parent-child dyads were instructed to complete a 4-minute conflict discussion task. Parent-child physiological synchrony was calculated based on the within-dyad association between parents' and children's respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) levels across eight 30-second epochs. Parental emotional support, child relationship quality with parents, and child emotion regulation during the discussion task were coded by trained research assistants. Supporting our hypotheses, parental emotional support moderated the relations of parent-child RSA synchrony with both child relationship quality with parents and child emotion regulation. Furthermore, the Johnson-Neyman technique of moderation indicated that the associations between parent and child RSA synchrony and child socioemotional adjustment indicators shifted from negative to positive as the parental emotional support became increasingly high. Our findings suggest that parent-child physiological synchrony may not be inherently adaptive or maladaptive, highlighting the importance of understanding the function of parent-child physiological synchrony under specific contexts. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Physiological synchrony may not be inherently adaptive or maladaptive, and the meanings of parent-child physiological synchrony might be contingent on contextual factors. Parental emotional support moderated the relations between parent-child respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) synchrony and child socioemotional adjustment indicators (i.e., child relationship quality with parents and child emotion regulation). More positive/less negative parent-child RSA synchrony was associated with better child socioemotional adjustment under a supportive emotional context, whereas with poorer child socioemotional adjustment under an unsupportive emotional context. These findings highlight the significance of considering the emotional context in physiological synchrony studies.

From infancy to eight: How early maternal mental health, emotion reminiscing, and language shape children's mental health.

To test the transmission of mental health difficulties from mother to child, we examined mediation through emotion reminiscing conversations and child language. Maternal depression symptoms were measured at 9 months post-partum, and child mental health outcomes were measured at age 8 years. Emotion reminiscing conversations between 1,234 mother-child pairs (624 boys, 610 girls) were recorded as part of a large, diverse, longitudinal cohort Growing Up in New Zealand. The 1,234 reminiscing conversations were transcribed and coded for maternal elaboration and emotion resolution quality (mother and child). The coded reminiscing variables did not mediate the pathway from maternal depression to child mental health outcomes; however, each maternal reminiscing variable together with child language skill serially mediated the relationship from maternal depression symptoms to child-reported anxiety and depression symptoms, and parent-reported child externalizing symptoms. Language as a skill and it's use as a tool for making shared meaning from past events are highlighted as possible mechanisms for the intergenerational transmission of mental health difficulties. These findings point to potential opportunities for early interventions, including prevention of and support for postnatal depression, family intervention in reminiscing training, and supporting child language development.

Quality of parent-child interaction in underserved migrant areas in Kyrgyz Republic: a pilot study.

BACKGROUND: After societal change in Kyrgyz Republic, the pattern of parent-child interaction in the changing parenting culture is an important factor influencing the positive development of Kyrgyz children. This study is aim to assess the quality of parent-child interactions in Kyrgyzstan by analyzing the interaction patterns and playfulness of children during free play at home. METHODS: This was a descriptive pilot study using video-recorded observations to explore parent-child interactions. The Dyadic Parent-Child Interaction Coding System and a playfulness instrument were used to assess the patterns and quality of the interaction. A total of 20 dyads of children aged 24 to 58 months and their parents, living in migrant communities of Kyrgyzstan, participated in this study. RESULTS: Major parent-child interaction patterns included 731 turns of parent-child dyads during 1040 episodes. Verbal as well as nonverbal behaviors of parents were observed while interacting with their children. Parents used direct and indirect commands most frequently, while praise was used the least in interactions. Children frequently used compliance as well as noncompliance when they interacted with their parents. Children had low playfulness scores while interacting with their parents. Cognitive spontaneity was the component with the lowest score among all subdomains of playfulness. CONCLUSION: Future studies are recommended to develop strategies to facilitate parents' active interaction with their children, promote children's playfulness, and improve the quality of their mutual interaction.

Parent-child interaction after home-visiting intervention for children born extremely preterm-A randomised clinical trial.

AIM: To determine whether a strength-based home-visiting program enhances parent-child interaction during the first year at home for children born extremely preterm (gestational age < 28). METHODS: A randomised controlled trial of 130 infants born extremely preterm 2018-2021 in Stockholm, allocated to either the Stockholm preterm interaction-based intervention (SPIBI) (n = 66) or an extended follow-up program (n = 64). The intervention group received ten home visits during the first year by a trained interventionist following SPIBI guidelines: an interaction-based intervention supporting sensitive parental responses to infants' signals. The primary outcome of emotional availability was assessed at 12 months corrected age (CA) using the emotional availability scales (EAS). RESULTS: At 1-year CA, data were collected from 115/130 (89%) of the included children. There were no significant group differences in emotional availability at 12 months CA. A secondary analysis showed an effect modifier in families with mothers self-rated as depressed at discharge, with the outcome favouring intervention in the EAS dimension of child involvement. CONCLUSION: The SPIBI had no significant main effect on emotional availability at 12 months CA. Children of self-reported depressed mothers displayed superior involvement behaviour in the intervention group, prompting further research on risk groups and potential modifications of post-discharge interventions.

Play With Me: Effects of a shared activities parenting intervention on parenting and relative reinforcing value of food.

This pilot randomized controlled trial evaluated impacts of a novel shared activities intervention designed to promote positive parent-child interactions, which may function as an alternative reinforcer to food. The 4-week, at-home Play With Me intervention combines didactic parenting videos and play kits with materials for parent-child activities to practice skills. Aims of the present study were to examine the intervention's acceptability and its effects on parenting and the relative reinforcing value (RRV) of food versus parent-child activity at post-intervention. Thirty-two parents of 4-to-5-year-old children at risk for obesity were randomly assigned to the intervention or a waitlist control group. The intervention was well-liked by parents and feasible. Intervention parents reported more parenting structure and demonstrated higher observed sensitive parenting than controls at post; the latter finding was driven by greater parent positive mood, warmth, positive reinforcement, and relationship quality, with large effect sizes. There were no effects on the RRV of food. Inconsistent with hypotheses, there were trends toward control group parents reporting more parenting satisfaction and efficacy at post. Possible explanations are discussed. Results suggest Play With Me shows promise as an effective and acceptable intervention to promote positive parenting. Further research is needed to examine these effects and their implications for socioemotional development and health in a larger, more diverse sample over a longer time frame.

Risk and Protective Factors for Parental Involvement and Early Indicators of School Achievement in Alaska.

OBJECTIVES: Parental involvement can affect child school readiness, which in turn influences subsequent child learning outcomes. While social support, stress, caregiver psychological distress, and drinking could affect parental involvement, it is unknown whether and how these factors influence downstream child learning outcomes through parental involvement and child school readiness. This study tests those associations. METHODS: Using de-identified data provided by the Alaska Longitudinal Child Abuse and Neglect Linkage project (N = 683), we use Structural Equation Modeling to assess direct and indirect effects of paths embedded in the proposed model. RESULTS: This study found statistically significant indirect effects: (1) path linking stress faced by caregivers to child reading proficiency through caregiver psychological distress, parental involvement, and child school readiness, (2) path linking stress faced by caregivers to child reading proficiency through caregiver drinking, parental involvement, and child school readiness, and (3) path linking social support for caregivers to child reading proficiency through caregiver psychological distress, parental involvement, and child school readiness. Post-estimation showed that the sum of the magnitude of total effects of stress and the magnitude of total effects of support is significantly larger than either alone. CONCLUSIONS FOR PRACTICE: Findings suggest that reducing caregiver stress and offering social support could not only benefit caregivers but learning outcomes of their children as well. For child learning outcomes, simultaneously reducing stress and offering social support for caregivers, rather than just one of them alone, is suggested. These results are important for children, particularly for those raised by caregivers experiencing psychological distress or drinking issues.

Child temperament as a longitudinal predictor of mother-adolescent interaction quality: are effects independent of child and maternal mental health?

Adaptive parent-child interaction plays a major role in healthy child development. Caregiver mental health problems can negatively impact parent-child interaction. In turn, interactional quality is often studied as a predictor of child outcome. However, child characteristics supposedly shape parent-child interactions as well. Given associations between child and caregiver mental health and child temperament, this study aimed at differentiating their effects on dyadic interaction quality in adolescence. Child temperament and character at age 5 were investigated as longitudinal predictors of observed mother-adolescent interactional quality at age 14 in a community sample (N = 76). It was examined whether these effects were independent of maternal and child mental health and earlier dysfunctional interaction. Lower novelty seeking, higher reward dependence, and higher cooperativeness separately predicted higher dyadic interactional quality at age 14. Controlling regressions for dysfunctional interaction at age 5, which was a significant negative predictor of later interactional quality, cancelled out the effects of novelty seeking and cooperativeness. Past or concurrent maternal or child psychopathology did not explain variance in mother-adolescent interaction. Applying backward selection, a model including reward dependence and dysfunctional interaction at age 5 and concurrent maternal stress showed the best fit for explaining dyadic interaction quality. Results suggest that enduring rather than transient child features predict interactional quality in a community sample. Effects of temperament are not better explained by those of psychopathology, but a combination of child, maternal, and dyadic features predicted dyadic behaviour best. Selective prevention should target parenting in the context of challenging child characteristics specifically.

Association between maltreatment, hair cortisol concentration, positive parent-child interaction, and psychosocial outcomes in Chinese preschool children.

Children now are facing an increasing risk of early life stress (ELS), which leads to detrimental psychosocial outcomes. Behavior studies suggested that positive parental interactions might moderate the negative impact of ELS, but the related biological alteration remains unclear. This study aims to investigate whether positive parent-child interactions moderate the association between maltreatment (as a severe form of ELS) and hair cortisol concentration (HCC), as well as between HCC and psychosocial outcomes in young children. Participants were 6-year-old Chinese children (N = 257, Mage = 6.2, 121 were male) selected by stratified cluster random sampling from a Shanghai population representative cohort. Proximal 3 cm hair strands were analyzed using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry for HCC. Children's psychosocial outcome was evaluated using the parental report Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Parents also reported the frequency of positive parent-child interactions using the Chinese Parent-Child Interaction Scale (CPCIS) as well as the history of maltreatment. Multi-level logistic regression models adjusting for individual, kindergarten, and district confounders were used to evaluate the associations between maltreatment, HCC, and psychosocial outcomes. Interactions terms tested whether more frequent positive parent-child interactions moderates the association between maltreatment and HCC, as well as between HCC and psychosocial outcomes. Maltreated children exhibited higher levels of HCC (B = 1.20, 95% CI: 0.38,2.02; p = 0.004), and children with higher HCC exhibited poorer psychosocial outcomes (B = 0.34, 95% CI: 0.18,0.51; p < 0.001). Positive parent-child interactions did not have a moderating effect on the association between maltreatment and HCC, but they demonstrated a moderating effect on the association between increased HCC and psychosocial outcomes (interaction term: B = -0.42, 95% CI: -0.75,-0.10; p = 0.01). These findings provide evidence that positive parental interaction may serve as a moderator between chronic cortisol exposure and psychosocial problems. It highlights the importance of frequent parent-child interactions, especially among children under a high risk of ELS.

Parent-child interaction, appetite self-regulation, and BMIz in Chinese preschoolers: a mediation analysis.

OBJECTIVES: Research on parent-child interaction (PCI) and its impact on children's weight status is a thriving study area. However, their potential pathways have not been established. This study investigated the association between PCI and children's body-mass index z score (BMIz) examining the role of appetite self-regulation (ASR) as a mediator. STUDY DESIGN: Mediation analysis. METHODS: We included children from 33 kindergartens in Wuhan with parents' consent, measuring children's height and weight, and calculating BMIz. To assess the PCI quality, we utilized the Brigance Parent-Child Interactions Scale. Additionally, children's ASR was tested by satiety responsiveness (SR) and food responsiveness (FR) using the Children's Eating Behavior Questionnaire. Quantile regression was employed to examine the PCI-BMIz association, while mediation analysis was conducted to explore ASR's mediating effect on the relationship between PCI and BMIz. RESULTS: Of 3973 children (53.88% boys) included in the analysis, the mean BMIz was 0.24 ± 1.13. The results revealed that children with poorer PCI quality have higher BMIz across all selected BMIz percentiles, except for the 5th percentile. Furthermore, these associations were significant across most percentiles, whether for boys or girls. Mediation analysis suggested that these associations were partially mediated by children's ASR (indFR = -0.026, PFR < 0.001; indSR = -0.058, PSR < 0.001), with stronger effects observed among boys. CONCLUSION: The variation in how strongly BMIz was linked to PCI across different percentiles suggests that children with poorer PCI have higher BMIz. The link is partially mediated through children's ASR. It's important to pay attention to the PCI quality in children with higher BMIz levels, especially in boys.

Psychometric soundness and predictive factors of the NCAST Parent-Child Interaction Teaching Scale in urban Chinese population.

BACKGROUND: Quality of parent-child interaction in early childhood functions as a critical indicator of nurturing care and is strongly associated with short-term and long-term development (health, cognition, language, social emotion, well-being, etc.). NCAST PCI Teaching Scale (PCI-TS), a video-based assessment regarded as a gold standard to measure PCI, has been widely used worldwide. However, its psychometric soundness among the urban Chinese population is unclear. This study assesses the PCI-TS's reliability and validity and explores predictive factors among urban Chinese parent-child dyads. METHODS: PCI-TS was adopted to code mother-child interaction among urban Chinese dyads recruited during the children's regular health checks in local maternal and child health centres. Reliability was evaluated by internal consistency (Cronbach'α coefficient) and test-retest reliability (Pearson correlation) with an average interval of 18 days. Score distribution of each subscale and total scale were compared with NCAST Database and Canadian community sample by single sample t-test. Criteria-related validity was conducted by Infant-Toddler Home Observation Measurement of the Environment (Pearson correlation). Predictive factors was performed by multiple linear regression. RESULTS: Four hundred and twenty-nine eligible mother-child dyads were included for data analysis among the 466 recruited samples. Four qualified local paediatricians accomplished video coding with an average agreement of 86%. The PCI-TS has strong reliability among the Chinese population with the Cronbach'α coefficients of the Caregiver-Infant total score, Caregiver total and Infant total scores of 0.81, 0.81 and 0.74, respectively; an acceptable test-retest reliability (r = 0.73, p < 0.01); and moderate correlation with IT-HOME, ranging from 0.53 to 0.62. Child age, birth weight, maternal education, full-time housewife, living with grandparent(s) and living space were predictive factors on PCI-TS in the Chinese population. CONCLUSION: PCI-TS showed good psychometric properties for measuring mother-child interactions among urban Chinese dyads, offering clinicians and researchers a practical tool to evaluate PCI objectively. Child age, maternal education and living space were beneficial factors, while full-time mothers and living with grandparent(s) were risk factors.

Deactivation, hyperactivation, and anomalous content in the attachment script assessment: stability over time and significance for parenting behavior and physiology.

This study examined the stability of Attachment Script Assessment (ASA) deactivation, hyperactivation, and anomalous content and their significance for parenting outcomes in mothers (Mage = 31 years; 78% White/European American) and 6-month-old infants. Comparable to ASA secure base script knowledge (SBSK), mothers' ASA deactivation, hyperactivation, and anomalous content were significantly, moderately stable over two years (r's = .40 - .43). Mothers' ASA hyperactivation and anomalous content were associated with greater maternal intrusiveness, whereas ASA deactivation was associated with greater detachment and less intrusiveness. Only ASA anomalous content was associated with lower maternal sensitivity. Mothers' ASA deactivation was associated with less dynamic change in respiratory sinus arrhythmia during the Still-Face Procedure-reflective of limited mobilization of physiological resources to support responding to infants. Findings support the validity of ASA deactivation, hyperactivation, and anomalous content scripts, and demonstrate their utility in examining adult attachment stability and predictive significance for parent-child outcomes.

Precursors and Effects of Self-reported Parental Reflective Functioning: Links to Parental Attachment Representations and Behavioral Sensitivity.

Parental reflective functioning is thought to provide a missing link between caregivers' own attachment histories and their ensuing parenting behaviors. The current study sought to extend research on this association involving 115 parents, both mothers and fathers, of 5-to-6-year-old preschoolers using the German version of the Parental Reflective Functioning Questionnaire (PRFQ). Our study was the first to combine Adult Attachment Interview classifications of parental attachment, behavioral observations of parental sensitivity and PRFQ ratings while drawing on a sizable father subsample. We found theoretically consistent significant relations between all measures, while our results particularly highlighted the role of dismissing attachment for decreases in parenting quality on both cognitive and behavioral levels as the dismissing status differentially affected specific components of self-reported parental reflective functioning and observed sensitivity. Interestingly, these patterns were largely comparable in mothers and fathers. Exploratory mediation analyses further suggested that decreased parental reflective functioning may partially mediate the relationship between parents' dismissing attachment and decreased parental sensitivity. Thus, for prevention and intervention programs targeting parental sensitivity and thus children's long term healthy mental development, the interplay between parental reflective functioning and parents' own attachment history emerges as a key mechanism. Finally, our study served as a further validation of the PRFQ given the caveat that the pre-mentalizing subscale may need further revision in the German version.

Bonding and parent-child quality of interaction in parents with eating disorder: A scoping review.

OBJECTIVE: To summarise existing evidence on bonding and parent-child quality of interaction in parents with eating disorder (ED). METHODS: A scoping review was conducted. Seven databases (PsycInfo, Embase, Medline, Pubmed, OpenGrey, ProQuest and Google Scholar) were examined and studies exploring research into bonding and quality of interaction in parents with ED were included. RESULTS: Seventeen quantitative studies were included in the review. Reviewed literature suggests that parents with ED tend to be more intrusive, may exhibit more negative expressed emotions and may be involved in higher levels of mealtime conflicts during mealtimes. Additionally, they may be less sensitive and may offer less structured in non-feeding interactions. Children of parents with ED may have a more difficult temperament, may display greater internalisation and externalisation problems, may be less responsive to their parents and exhibit more behavioural difficulties. CONCLUSION: Overall, we found that parents with ED are more likely to have difficulties during interactions with children, compared with controls, both in feeding and non-feeding contexts which might impact children's mental health. Proposals for future research are suggested to enhance our understanding of the intergenerational transmission of ED, holding the potential to pinpoint therapeutic and preventative targets for both parents with ED and their children.

The social convoy for depression among the older adults in rural China: A multilevel structural equation modeling analysis using a national sample.

Rural older adults experience significant mental and physical health challenges. Social convoy theory offers insights into this by assuming functional limitations as antecedent factors of depression through multiple social-related levels. The combined panel data from 2011, 2013, 2015, and 2018 of the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (1,354 individuals with 5,416 responses) was utilized to address the above assumption. The multilevel structural equation modeling was employed to examine whether social activity participation and parent-child interaction mediate the relationship between functional limitations and depressive symptoms at multiple levels. The results indicated that the mediation effects existed only at the between-person level. Specifically, older adults with more functional limitations participated in less social activity, leading to more depressive symptoms, but engaged in more parent-child interaction, reducing depressive symptoms. At the within-person level, depressive symptoms in a given older adult were correlated with functional limitations. In years with greater limitations, older adults participated less in both social activity and parent-child interaction. Interventions should be tailored to older adults' functional limitations, focusing on social activities for those with typically greater limitations, intergenerational programs for those with fewer limitations, and a combination of both for those experiencing significant increases in limitations.

Comparing parent-child interaction during wordless book reading, print book reading and imaginative play.

This study investigated differences in adult-child language interactions when parents and their three-to-four-year old children engage in wordless book reading, text-and-picture book reading and a small-world toy play activity. Twenty-two parents recorded themselves completing each activity at home with their child. Parent input was compared across contexts, focusing on interactive and conceptual domains: use of open prompts, expansions or extensions of children's utterances, and use of decontextualised (abstract) language. Use of linguistic expansions was greater during book reading than toy play. Parents used open questions and added contingent conceptual information more often when reading wordless books than in both other conditions. Findings suggest that wordless books may combine the benefits of open-endedness and linguistic content based around a narrative. Parents' use of abstract language also varied by condition. This study extends understanding of the role of activity context in shaping children's language learning environments.

Commentary: Technoference or parental phubbing? A call for greater conceptual and operational clarity of parental smartphone use around children.

Recent years have seen a widespread integration of technology into the daily lives of families. Psychological science has recently started to focus on the use of smartphones by parents while they are engaged in parenting activities, a behavior known under the terms "phubbing," "technoference," "parental screen distraction," and various other terms. We argue that understanding the real impact of co-present smartphone use by parents is inhibited by problems related to the conceptualization and methodology employed in empirical studies. In the present commentary, we identify the features of current research that may contribute to the theory crisis and hamper the progress of psychological research. Specifically, we discuss the implications of (a) inconsistent conceptualization of the phenomenon and (b) suboptimal operationalizations that may prevent us from understanding what is being studied and call for greater consideration of definitional clarity and valid operationalization in future research.

Moving beyond the mother-child dyad: a commentary on Oppenheim et al. (2023).

The research presented by Oppenheim et al. (J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 2023) breaks important new ground by moving beyond the mother-child dyad and investigating the coparenting alliance between mothers and fathers of young children with autism. By integrating family systems thinking, developmental science, and research on autism spectrum disorder, this line of research is bound to improve our understanding of how family systems influence the social emotional development of young children with autism, how children's development and learning can be optimized, and how parents' marital relationship and mental health can be strengthened. Future research should investigate the coparenting alliance across a range of family functions aside from triadic play (e.g. caregiving, teaching, attachment, and behavior management) and move beyond nuclear family structures to capture the lived experiences of families within industrialized countries more adequately and embrace cultural differences across the globe.

The predictors of change in reflective parenting therapy: Uncovering the influence of parental reflective functioning and child temperament in predicting the improvement in parent-child relationship and child outcome following DUET group intervention.

Parental reflective functioning (PRF) is the ability of parents to understand their child's behavior in light of underlying mental processes; it is a core element in the parent-child relationship. RF is also considered crucial for self-regulation for both parents and their children. We investigated the relationship between improvement in PRF after DUET group intervention (a RF-based intervention) and improvement in the parent-child interaction, child RF, and child adjustment, and we examined whether these improvements were distinct for children with different temperamental traits (e.g., effortful control). Eighty-four parents completed the DUET program and were assessed before and after the intervention. PRF was measured using observation (mind-mindedness) and a questionnaire. Statistical analysis included hierarchical regression and moderation of regression analysis. Results showed that improvement in the parent-child interaction, child RF, and child behavioral problems were related to improvement in PRF. Furthermore, we found that child temperament acted as a moderator in the link between PRF and child RF, supporting a vantage sensitivity model, meaning that it was the more sensitive children who benefitted the most as a result of the positive change in their parents' RF. Clinical and future directions of this study are discussed.