Relationship of Activity Patterns to Acute Mountain Sickness in South Pole Workers.

This study aimed to evaluate the influence of physical activity on incidence of acute mountain sickness (AMS) by continuous activity monitoring in a free-living sample of South Pole workers over the initial 72 h at altitude exposure of 2,840 m (9,318 ft). Body Media activity monitors were worn by 47 healthy participants. AMS was defined by the Lake Louise symptom questionnaire. Venous blood samples were taken at sea level and approximately 48 h after high altitude exposure. AMS incidence was 34% (n=16/47) over the first 48 h and 40% (n=19/47) over 72 h. On day 2 at high altitude, individuals with AMS demonstrated a significantly greater increase in the percent change in physical activity metrics from baseline: total energy expenditure 19±13 vs. 5±7%, total steps 65±51 vs. 10±18%, metabolic equivalent of tasks 21±13 vs. 7±13%, and time spent performing moderate to vigorous physical activity 114±79 vs. 26±27% for individuals with AMS vs. no AMS, respectively, p<0.05. In addition, erythropoietin and vascular endothelial growth factor were 1.69 and 1.75 times higher, respectively, in those with AMS. In conclusion, workers who engaged in increased physical activity and activity intensity during initial exposure to the South Pole were more susceptible to developing AMS.

In Antarctica, scientists track a dangerous bird flu.

Despite apparently minimal seabird deaths, grave concern for the next breeding season.

Brucella antibody seroprevalence in Antarctic seals (Arctocephalus gazella, Leptonychotes weddellii and Mirounga leonina).

Brucellosis is a worldwide infectious zoonotic disease caused by Gram-negative bacteria of the genus Brucella, and Brucella infections in marine mammals were first reported in 1994. A serosurvey investigating the presence of anti-Brucella antibodies in 3 Antarctic pinniped species was undertaken with a protein A/G indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (iELISA) and the Rose Bengal test (RBT). Serum samples from 33 Weddell seals Leptonychotes weddelli were analysed, and antibodies were detected in 8 individuals (24.2%) with the iELISA and in 21 (65.6%) with the RBT. We tested 48 southern elephant seal Mirounga leonina sera and detected antibodies in 2 animals (4.7%) with both the iELISA and the RBT. None of the 21 Antarctic fur seals Arctocephalus gazella was found positive. This is the first report of anti-Brucella antibodies in southern elephant seals. The potential impact of Brucella infection in pinnipeds in Antarctica is not known, but Brucella spp. are known to cause abortion in terrestrial species and cetaceans. Our findings suggest that Brucella infection in pinnipeds is present in the Antarctic, but to date B. pinnipedialis has not been isolated from any Antarctic pinniped species, leaving the confirmation of infection pending.

Parasitic infection by larval helminths in Antarctic fishes: pathological changes and impact on the host body condition index.

We examined pathological changes and relationship between body condition index (BCI) and parasitic infection in 5 species of fish, including 42 icefish Chionodraco hamatus (Channichtyidae), 2 dragonfish Cygnodraco mawsoni (Bathydraconidae), 30 emerald rock cod Trematomus bernacchii, 46 striped rock cod T. hansoni and 9 dusty rock cod T. newnesi (Nototheniidae) from the Ross Sea, Antarctica. All parasites were identified by a combination of morphology and mtDNA cytochrome-oxidase-2 sequence (mtDNA cox2) analysis, except Contracaecum osculatum s.l., for which only the latter was used. Five larval taxa were associated with pathological changes including 2 sibling species (D and E) of the C. osculatum species complex and 3 cestodes including plerocercoids of a diphyllobothridean, and 2 tetraphyllidean forms including cercoids with monolocular and bilocular bothridia. The most heavily infected hosts were C. hamatus and C. mawsoni, with C. hamatus most often infected by C. osculatum sp. D and sp. E and diphyllobothrideans, while C. mawsoni was most often infected with tetraphyllidean forms. Histologically, all fish showed varying severity of chronic inflammation associated with larval forms of helminths. Diphyllobothrideans and C. osculatum spp. were located in gastric muscularis or liver and were associated with necrosis and mild to marked fibrosis. Moderate multifocal rectal mucosal chronic inflammation was associated with attached tetraphyllidean scolices. C. hamatus showed a strong negative correlation between BCI and parasite burden.

Gastrointestinal parasites in Chinstrap Penguins from Deception Island, South Shetlands, Antarctica.

Knowledge about parasites of Antarctic birds is fragmented and scarce. The aim of this work is to contribute to the knowledge of gastrointestinal parasites of the Chinstrap Penguin (Pygoscelis antarctica) from Deception Island (South Shetlands, Antarctica). Gastrointestinal tracts of 64 fresh dead individuals (61 chicks and three adults) were collected from December 2006 to February 2009 and examined for macroparasites. Three adult parasite species were found: two Cestoda species (Parorchites zederi and Tetrabothrius pauliani) and one Nematoda species (Stegophorus macronectes). Also, immature acanthocephalans (Corynosoma sp.) were found in one penguin. The low parasite richness observed could be related to the stenophagic and pelagic diet of the host species. False negatives were found in coprological studies.

Morbidity pattern of the 27th Indian Indian Scientific Expedition to Antarctica.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate morbidity prototype of 27th Indian Scientific Expedition to Antarctica (ISEA). METHODS: Twenty-six team members of 27th ISEA wintered over at the Indian Antarctic Station, Maitri, from February 2008 to January 2009. The morbidity pattern was sourced from the medical records. Preexisting illnesses were also considered in this analysis. RESULTS: The team consisted of men between 27 and 59 years of age (mean age, 43 years). Nine team members had preexisting illnesses. A total of 93 illness incidents were recorded during the stay in Antarctica. Most of these (27) were musculoskeletal injuries, bruises, and lacerations. Thirty-two (34%) incidents of illness were noted under the purview of medicine; 26 (28%), surgery; 15 (16%), orthopedics; 9 (10%), otorhinolaryngology; 8 (9%), ophthalmology; 2 (2%), dentistry; and 3 (3%), psychiatry. Oral ulcers were noted in 8 (8%) participants primarily during early wintering. CONCLUSIONS: Injuries continue to be the most common cause of morbidity in Antarctica. Nutritional deficiencies and cold-related injuries are relatively less common.

Subjective time estimation in Antarctica: The impact of extreme environments and isolation on a time production task.

Interval timing measures time estimation in the seconds-to-minutes range. Antarctica provides a real-world context to study the effect of extreme photoperiods and isolation on time perception. The aim of this study was to explore interval timing as a cognitive measure in the crew of Belgrano II Argentine Antarctic Station. A total of 13 subjects were assessed for interval timing in short (3 s), intermediate (6 s) and long (12 s) duration stimuli. Measures were taken during the morning and evening, five times along the year. Significant variations were found for 3 s and 6 s during the morning and 6 s during the evening. Results suggest an impact of isolation on morning performances and an effect of the polar night on evening measures. These findings shed some light on the use of interval timing as a cognitive test to assess performance in extreme environments.

Seal bites at sub-Antarctic Marion Island: Incidence, outcomes and treatment recommendations.

Seal biologists at Marion Island (Southern Ocean) are in frequent contact with seals. During research activities, biologists may be bitten by seals, yet no standardised protocol for treating such bites is in place. Information on 22 seal bite cases at Marion Island was collected. Treatment of these bites varied, reflecting a need for standardised protocols for the treatment of bites. Recommendations for the in-field treatment of bites are presented. Five of the 22 cases had some symptoms which resembled 'seal finger' - a zoonotic infection, usually of the hands, that is contracted after a person comes into contact with tissues of seals or is bitten by one. However, in four of these cases, symptoms subsided within 4 days without antibiotic treatment; in the fifth case antibiotics were administered and symptoms subsided in 4 days. There is little evidence of the occurrence of seal finger at Marion Island, but this deserves further investigation.

Skeletal and hormonal responses to sunlight deprivation in Antarctic expeditioners.

UNLABELLED: Serum 25(OH)D levels decline without sunlight exposure. We studied 120 expeditioners to Antarctica to determine the skeletal and hormonal responses to sunlight deprivation. With emerging vitamin D insufficiency, serum calcium decreased, PTH increased, and bone loss at the proximal femur was observed. Baseline serum 25(OH)D levels >100 nmol/L prevented vitamin D insufficiency. INTRODUCTION: Vitamin D stores deplete without adequate sunlight exposure unless supplementation is provided. We studied 120 healthy adults who spent a year in Antarctica as a model for sunlight deprivation to define the timing and magnitude of the skeletal and hormonal responses to emerging vitamin D insufficiency. METHODS: Fasting blood samples were assessed at baseline, 6 and 12 months for serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D), osteocalcin (OC), bone formation (P1NP) and resorption (CTx), PTH and calcium. Lumbar spine and proximal femur BMD was measured using DXA. Differences over time were determined using repeated measures ANOVA. Percent changes were expressed as (Delta value/(value A + value B)/2) x 100. Relationships between outcome measures were determined using Spearman's correlations. RESULTS: Vitamin D insufficiency (<50 nmol/L) was observed in 85% of expeditioners by 6 months when serum calcium decreased and PTH increased (p < 0.01). By 12 months, OC increased by 7.4 +/- 3.0% (p < 0.05), and BMD decreased by 1.0 +/- 2.0% at the total proximal femur (p < 0.05). For those with vitamin D sufficiency at baseline (>50 nmol/L), sunlight deprivation produced vitamin D insufficiency within 4 months unless baseline values were >100 nmol/L. CONCLUSION: Supplementation may be necessary for expeditioners with limited access to UV light.

Disease and injury statistics of Japanese Antarctic research expeditions during the wintering period: evaluation of 6837 cases in the 1st-56th parties - Antarctic health report in 1956-2016.

This study aimed to evaluate disease and injury trends among wintering members of the Japanese Antarctic Research Expedition. Obtained information is indispensable to the advancement of medical system and research. Summation was performed based on medical records of reports prepared by each expedition over the period 1956-2016. The clinical department's classification methods of the names of injuries and diseases varied among expeditions, but the names were integrated following the same classification. Of 1734 members (29 women), 6837 disease or injury cases (4 cases/person) were recorded. The rates of cases were as follows: surgical-orthopaedic (45.3%), internal medical (21.7%), dental (11.6%), dermatological (8.4%), ophthalmological (5.8%), otorhinolaryngological (5.3%), psychiatric (1.6%), and urological (0.1%) cases. There was no major change in rates by type of medical case in each expedition. This analysis made it possible to prepare medical facilities, content of physical examinations to select members, training of physicians before departure, preventive hygiene at sites, and medical research themes.

Towards estimating the indigenous population in circumpolar regions.

Despite the importance of indigenous people in the Arctic, there is no accurate estimate of their size and distribution. We defined indigenous people as those groups represented by the "permanent participants" of the Arctic Council. The census in Canada, Russia and the United States records status as an indigenous person. In Greenland, a proxy measure is place of birth supplemented by other information. For the Nordic countries we utilized a variety of sources including registered voters' lists of the various Sami parliaments and research studies that established Sami cohorts. Overall, we estimated that there were about 1.13 million indigenous people in the northern regions of the 8 Member States of the Arctic Council. There were 8,100 Aleuts in Alaska and the Russian North; 32,400 Athabaskans in Alaska and northern Canada; 145,900 Inuit in Alaska, northern Canada and Greenland; 76,300 Sami in northern Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia; and 866,400 people in northern Russia belonging to other indigenous groups. Different degrees and types of methodological problems are associated with estimates from different regions. Our study highlights the complexity and difficulty of the task and the considerable gaps in knowledge. We hope to spur discussion of this important issue which could ultimately affect strategies to improve the health of circumpolar peoples.

The Incidence of Dental Needs During Isolated Missions Compared to Non-isolated Missions: A Systematic Review and Implications for Future Prevention Strategies.

INTRODUCTION: Dental emergencies in isolated groups have always been difficult to treat. Especially in people or groups who cannot be evacuated and who need urgent dental assistance: long-term submarine missions, long-term spaceship trips, military or non-governmental organizations deployments in conflict areas, military maneuvers, etc. The dental and evacuation problems could put the success of the mission at risk, with relevant associated economic and strategic costs. Our study summarizes current evidence about dental problems in isolated personnel (submarines and Antarctic missions) compared to other non-isolation conditions (military deployment in conflict area, military maneuvers) with the objective to assess the need for specific dental equipment in special long-term isolation conditions. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We searched Medline, Cochrane Library, and Dentalgate between 1960 and 2017 for studies reporting dental disease in long-term isolation conditions (minimum 1 month) versus non-isolation conditions. We conducted the systematic review with all studies fitting the inclusion criteria. The comparison of the incidence rate was performed fitting a Poisson regression model to see the effect of the individual's condition on the incidence of dental event. RESULTS: Thirty-eight studies were included in the systematic review. Antarctic missions showed a higher dental incidence rate compared to non-isolation conditions, but submarine missions showed the lowest dental incidence rate. In the sub-analysis of acute dental events, those with great impact on unit effectiveness, the incidence rates were higher. Caries and secondary decay events were the most prevalent dental problem in all conditions, followed by periodontal pathology and fractures of teeth or tooth problems not due to tooth decay in isolation conditions, and then by molar problems and endodontic problems in non-isolation conditions. The most common acute dental events were third molar problems and endodontic problems in all conditions. CONCLUSION: This systematic review shows that the incidence of dental pathology in long-term isolation conditions may seem relatively infrequent but it exists and is relevant. Dental events are unpredictable, unrelated to trauma, and caused mainly by poor dental status. Preventive measures considerably reduce dental prevalence.

Leeches (Hirudinida: Piscicolidae)--parasites of Antarctic fish from Channichthyidae family.

There has hitherto been very few research projects focusing on ectoparasites of Antarctic fishes. The presently reported study provides data on the prevalence and the intensity of leeches (Hirudinida: Piscicolidae) infecting fishes. The materials were collected in December-February 1986/87 off the Elephant Island, South Georgia, Joinville Island, and South Shetlands. The following leech taxa were recorded in the Antarctic fishes of the family Channichthyidae: Trulliobdella capitis (Brinkmann, 1947); Cryobdella antarctica Epstein, 1970; Nototheniobdella sawyeri Utevsky, 1997; and Cryobdella sp. The above findings constitute new geographic records from off Elephant and Joinville Island and South Georgia.

Clinical Herpes Zoster in Antarctica as a Model for Spaceflight.

INTRODUCTION: Antarctica is a useful analog for spaceflight, as both environments are remote, isolated, and with limited resources. While previous studies have demonstrated increased asymptomatic viral shedding in both the Antarctic and spaceflight environments, clinical manifestations of reactivated viral disease have been less frequently identified. We sought to identify the incidence of clinical herpes zoster from viral reactivation in the Antarctic winter-over population. METHODS: Medical records from the 2014 winter season were reviewed for the incidence of zoster in U.S. Antarctic personnel and then compared to the age-matched U.S. RESULTS: Five cases of clinical herpes zoster occurred in the Antarctic Station population of 204 persons, for an incidence of 33.3 per 1000 person-years vs. 3.2 per 1000 person-years in the general population. Four cases were in persons under age 40, yielding an incidence of 106.7 per 1000 person-years in persons ages 30-39 compared to an incidence of 2.0 per 1000 person-years in the same U.S. age group. DISCUSSION: Immune suppression due to the stressful Antarctic environment may have contributed to the increased incidence of herpes zoster in U.S. Antarctic personnel during the winter of 2014. Working and living in isolated, confined, and extreme environments can cause immune suppression, reactivating latent viruses and increasing viral shedding and symptomatic disease. Such changes have been observed in other austere environments, including spaceflight, suggesting that clinical manifestations of viral reactivation may be seen in future spaceflight.Reyes DP, Brinley AA, Blue RS, Gruschkus SK, Allen AT, Parazynski SE. Clinical herpes zoster in Antarctica as a model for spaceflight. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2017; 88(8):784-788.

Outbreaks of avian cholera in Hope Bay, Antarctica.

During austral summers 1999-2000 and 2000-01, two outbreaks of avian cholera occurred in the Hope Bay area (63 degrees 24'S, 56 degrees 59'W), located on the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula. Eighty-six dead birds were found: five kelp gulls (Larus dominicanus), 36 skuas (Stercorarius sp.), and 45 Adelie penguins (Pygoscelis adeliae). The carcasses were studied using clinical, pathological, and microbiological criteria. Water samples from ponds where birds were settled and samples from 90 healthy birds also were analyzed during the second outbreak. Pasteurella multocida isolates were identified by biochemical tests, capsular type, somatic serotype, and susceptibility to nine antibiotics. Molecular subtyping was performed by ApaI and SmaI pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus (ERIC-PCR). In February 2000, mortality in skuas was 16% and 2% in kelp gulls. In the 2000-01 breeding season, mortality in south polar skuas was 47%, 24% in brown skuas, 1.4% in kelp gulls, and 0.01% in Adelie penguins. All birds had lesions of avian cholera. In kelp gulls the presentation was chronic, whereas skuas and penguins suffered subacute and acute disease, respectively. Fifty-five isolates recovered from dead birds and one from water were identified as P. multocida gallicida, type A:1. The strains presented a unique molecular pattern by PFGE and ERIC-PCR. A possible hypothesis to explain the origin of the outbreaks was that nonbreeder kelp gulls carried P. multocida gallicida to Hope Bay, and avian cholera was transmitted through water to skuas and penguins. This study reports avian cholera in new bird species, their potential role in the transmission of the disease, and the different responses of these species to the disease.

Long-term and large-scale epidemiology of Brucella infection in baleen whales and sperm whales in the western North Pacific and Antarctic Oceans.

In a long-term, large-scale serologic study in the western North Pacific Ocean, anti-Brucella antibodies were detected in common minke whales (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) in the 1994-2010 offshore surveys (21%, 285/1353) and in the 2006-2010 Japanese coastal surveys (20%, 86/436), in Bryde's whales (B. edeni brydei) in the 2000-2010 offshore surveys (9%, 49/542), in sei whales (B. borealis) in the 2002-2010 offshore surveys (5%, 40/788) and in sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) in the 2000-2010 offshore surveys (8%, 4/50). Anti-Brucella antibodies were not detected in 739 Antarctic minke whales (B. bonaerensis) in the 2000-2010 Antarctic surveys. This suggests that Brucella was present in the four large whale populations inhabiting the western North Pacific, but not in the Antarctic minke whale population. By PCR targeting for genes of outer membrane protein 2, the Brucella infection was confirmed in tissue DNA samples from Bryde's whales (14%, 2/14), sei whales (11%, 1/9) and sperm whales (50%, 2/4). A placental tissue and an apparently healthy fetus from a sperm whale were found to be PCR-positive, indicating that placental transmission might have occurred and the newborn could act as a bacterial reservoir. Marked granulomatous testes were observed only in mature animals of the three species of baleen whales in the western North Pacific offshore surveys, especially in common minke whales, and 29% (307/1064) of total mature males had abnormal testes. This study provides an insight into the status of marine Brucella infection at a global level.

First record of Babesia sp. in Antarctic penguins.

This is the first reported case of Babesia sp. in Antarctic penguins, specifically a population of Chinstrap penguins (Pygoscelis antarctica) in the Vapour Col penguin rookery in Deception Island, South Shetlands, Antarctica. We collected peripheral blood from 50 adult and 30 chick Chinstrap penguins. Examination of the samples by microscopy showed intraerythrocytic forms morphologically similar to other avian Babesia species in 12 Chinstrap penguin adults and seven chicks. The estimated parasitaemias ranged from 0.25×10(-2)% to 0.75×10(-2)%. Despite the low number of parasites found in blood smears, semi-nested PCR assays yielded a 274 bp fragment in 12 of the 19 positive blood samples found by microscopy. Sequencing revealed that the fragment was 97% similar to Babesia sp. 18S rRNA from Australian Little Penguins (Eudyptula minor) confirming presence of the parasite. Parasite prevalence estimated by microscopy in adults and chicks was higher (24% vs. 23.3%, respectively) than found by semi-nested PCR (16% vs. 13.3% respectively). Although sampled penguins were apparently healthy, the effect of Babesia infection in these penguins is unknown. The identification of Babesia sp. in Antarctic penguins is an important finding. Ixodes uriae, as the only tick species present in the Antarctic Peninsula, is the key to understanding the natural history of this parasite. Future work should address the transmission dynamics and pathogenicity of Babesia sp. in Chinstrap penguin as well as in other penguin species, such as Gentoo penguin (Pygoscelis papua) and Adélie penguin (Pygoscelis adeliae), present within the tick distribution range in the Antarctic Peninsula.

Metazoan Parasites of Antarctic Fishes.

To date, there have been nearly 100 papers published on metazoan parasites of Antarctic fishes, but there has not yet been any compilation of a species list of fish parasites for this large geographic area. Herein, we provide a list of all documented occurrences of monogenean, cestode, digenean, acanthocephalan, nematode, and hirudinean parasites of Antarctic fishes. The list includes nearly 250 parasite species found in 142 species of host fishes. It is likely that there are more species of fish parasites, which are yet to be documented from Antarctic waters.