Whose experts? How federalism shaped psychiatry in the late Habsburg monarchy.

The late Habsburg period (1867-1918) created a constitutional dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. This paper discusses the role of psychiatry in Cisleithania, both as a developing profession and as a distinct 'policy field'. Tension between psychiatry's academic professionalisation and the creation of public institutions as signature projects by individual crownlands created complex relationships between psychiatry and politics. In federalist Cisleithania, psychiatrists became very 'political': whether employed by the state or a crownland influenced their position on policy, despite claiming that their expert knowledge was 'scientific' and 'objective'. The conflicts between asylum-based and academic psychiatrists mirrored those between the central state and the crownlands. This led to intractable delays in mental health law reform, eventually resolved by Imperial decree in 1916.

A Note on Semmelweis's Animal Experiments and Their Historical Significance.

This article seeks to establish what animal experiments Semmelweis conducted, and when and why he conducted them, because the Semmelweis literature contains conflicting claims about these topics or has ignored them altogether. Semmelweis first conducted animal experiments between 22 March and 20 August 1849 with Rokitansky's assistant, Georg Maria Lautner, because his chief, Johann Klein, did not accept that by merely reducing the mortality rate from childbed fever with chlorine hand-disinfection, Semmelweis had proved his theory of the cause of childbed fever. However, Skoda concluded that the Lautner experiments did not resolve the doubts about Semmelweis's theory they were intended to resolve, and, therefore, asked the Academy of Sciences to award Semmelweis a grant to conduct further and more varied experiments with the physiologist, Ernst Ritter von Brücke. These additional experiments were conducted in the spring and summer of 1850, but yielded only ambiguous results, and led Brücke to conclude that questions about Semmelweis's theory could only be resolved by clinical observations, not animal experiments. This article discusses the reasoning behind these animal experiments, and Skoda's and Brücke's responses to them, and argues that their responses to the experiments caused Semmelweis to delay publishing his research until he had collected sufficient clinical evidence to prove his theory.

Skin and Disease in Early Modern Medicine: Jan Jessen's De cute, et cutaneis affectibus (1601).

This article examines skin and disease in early modern medicine through the writings of the little-known Bohemian physician Jan Jessen (1566-1621). In 1601, Jessen published De cute, et cutaneis affectibus, a set of twenty-one theses dedicated to the question of whether skin disease existed. In considering Jessen and his relationship to a broader world of writing, this article makes three arguments. First, it suggests that, contrary to existing historiography, the question of skin disease was a common sixteenth-century concern. Second, it posits a professional channel for this concern, which arose from surgery and disease, rather than from anatomy and physiology. Finally, rather than positioning Jessen at the forefront of discovery, I suggest his text functions as a representative case study. It allows us to see material change in medicine within a stable Galenic framework.

The Press and Suicides in the 19th Century: Investigating Possible Imitative Effects in Five Territories of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

During the 19th century, suicide rates increased in many countries. The press may have contributed to this increase, even though empirical evidence is lacking in this regard. We assessed suicide statistics within five territories of the Austro-Hungarian Empire between 1871 and 1910 and combined these data with a content analysis of suicide reporting in five newspapers, each appearing in one of the five territories. The analysis revealed a covariation between the quantity of reporting and the number of suicides within all five regions. Furthermore, the quantity of reporting significantly predicted the following year's suicides. Although the causal order of suicides and the quantity of reporting should be assessed with caution, evidence is consistent with the idea that the press may have contributed to the establishment of suicide as a mass phenomenon. The findings also support contemporary guidelines for journalists, especially the notion of avoiding undue repetition of suicide stories.

Transnational and Intercultural Practices in the Adriatic Littoral of the Late Habsburg Empire.

The paper describes the strategy of an interdisciplinary project on the patterns of transnational interactions and mobility that shaped intercultural dialogue in the south-eastern periphery of the late Austro-Hungarian Empire. Methodologically, it is structured around three interconnected analytic levels of institutions, associations and everyday life, that are mutually constitutive, and the exploration of three dimensions characterizing social spaces: social practices in different domains of life, symbolic system (focusing on language) and the use of artifacts, or material life. Based on secondary sources, the imperial naval port of Pula is analyzed within the methodological frame that goes beyond methodological nationalism.

[A fourth-generation doctor - Hans Selye and his origins from Felvidék (today Slovakia)]. / A "negyedizigleni" orvos - Selye János felvidéki gyökerei.

Hans Selye regarded himself as the fourth generation of medical dynasty, but in his books he did not name his ancestors. Based on facts from archives and contemporary literature the author demonstrated that the grandfather of Hans Selye was called Schlesinger and he worked in Pruszka (county Trencsén; (today: Pruské, county Trencín, Slovakia) as a district physician. Orv. Hetil., 2016, 157(33), 1331-1333.

[Spotted fever and the invention of its serodiagnosis and vaccination in the Austro-Hungarian army in World War I]. / Das Fleckfieber und die Erfindung seiner Serodiagnose und Impfung bei der k. u. k. Armee im Ersten Weltkrieg.

After description of the medical institutions and epidemiological situations of the Austro-Hungarian army in World War I the provisions against spotted fever focused on louse control are discussed. The letter specified for the army had to be adjusted for the local populations. 1915 in the k.u.k. military service in Galicia Edmund Weil and Arthur Felix cultivated Proteus strains from urine of soldiers with spotted fever. As sera of such patients agglutinated these bacteria in considerable titers the investigators developed the reliable diagnostic "Weil-Felix-Test" used still today. In the same military area and time Rudolf Weigl invented the anal infection of lice. This enabled him to harvest a great amount of louse intestines containing the spotted fever Rickettsiae in their epithelial cells. Lots with defined numbers of intestines were homogenized, sterilized and used with success as vaccine for medical staff. This sort of vaccine still was used in World War II.

[Ludwik Fleck and the Gestalt psychology of his time]. / Ludwik Flecks Gestaltbegriff und sein Blick auf die Gestaltpsychologie seiner Zeit.

The notion of 'Gestalt' plays a prominent role in Ludwik Fleck's theory of thought styles. This paper scrutinizes how Fleck adopted the concepts and even methods of Gestalt psychology that he sometimes vaguely refers to. Systematically comparing the argumentation and theoretical outlines of Fleck's social theory of perception and the principles of some Gestalt theories, this article will show and discuss their similarities and fundamental differences. According to Fleck, both science and individual perception rest on social actions and cultural traditions. In particular, Fleck emphasized the relevance of the common language and collective meanings for the shaping of objects according to the thought style of a scientific collective. In contrast to the principles of Gestalt theories, in Fleck's view not only the perception, but also the constitution of scientific objects and even the'laws' of perception depend on social and cultural constructions of reality. That leads him to a particular theory of Gestalt perception

[What is thinking inside the individual? Figurations of Collectivity in Ludwik Fleck, Tadeusz Bilikiewicz, and Ludwig Gumplowicz]. / Was denkt im Individuum? : Kollektivfiguren bei Ludwik Fleck, Tadeusz Bilikiewicz und Ludwig Gumplowicz.

"What thinks in man, is not he himself, but his social community." These words by the early sociologist Ludwig Gumplowicz (1838­1909) were quoted several times by Ludwik Fleck (1896­1961) and seem to be in complete agreement with his own theory of thought collectives. The assumption that even scientific ideas were not so much generated by the scientist as an autonomous individual but rather by and within the social environment was still considered provocative by Fleck in the 1930s. This article will explore the implications of this assumption by comparing Fleck with Gumplowicz as well as with Tadeusz Bilikiewicz (1901­1980), a psychiatrist, philosopher and historian of medicine working like Fleck in the cultural milieu of Lwów/Lemberg.

[Science and magic. Motives from ethnology and the psychology of perception in the epistemology of Ludwik Fleck]. / Wissenschaft und Magie : Ethnologische und wahrnehmungspsychologische Motive in Ludwik Flecks Epistemologie.

Fleck's social theory of science refers to many ethnological examples in order to explain how collective thinking and acting constructs certain systems of belief and knowing. According to Fleck, scientific concepts and practices are comparable with magic terms and ceremonies. This essay aims to identify the ethnological sources that Fleck's epistemology is using. By confronting them with other relativistic theories that were circulating in Lemberg during the interwar period, the originality of Fleck's own position can be contextualized and explained as well.

[Communication of ideas, intersections and consolidation - Fleck, Simmel, and Völkerpsychologie]. / Gedankenverkehr, Kreuzung und Verdichtung : Fleck, Simmel und die Völkerpsychologie.

Ludwik Fleck's rediscovery, initiated by Thomas Kuhn, was prominently related to its sociological emphasis. But while this emphasis as such resonated with the sociological circles within science studies, Fleck's actual sociological position was criticized for lacking clear boundaries to psychology and philosophy, and eventually for inconsistency. This article agrees with the former judgement and rejects the latter. It introduces as core and key to Fleck's own sociology the thought style of Völkerpsychologie, and the sociology Georg Simmel developed from this tradition

["Migration of Thoughts". Ludwik Fleck's morphology of knowledge]. / "Gedankenwanderung" : Ludwik Flecks Morphologie des Wissens.

This article traces some of the transformation that the fields of folk psychology (Völkerpsychologie) and anthropology underwent in the late nineteenth century. Ludwik Fleck, in developing his sociology of knowledge, drew on both of these fields; a legacy that makes it possible to conceive of his epistemology as a theory of communication. Fleck, in grounding his understanding of the relationship between sociality and communication on insights from these two disciplines, proposed the morphological concept of an organic formation of all scientific knowledge. Naturalising knowledge production in this manner, Fleck postulated a program of deciphering, reading, and translation that would relate all forms of knowledge back to the rules and conditions of its making. In this morphological conception of the processes of knowledge production, Fleck's sociology bears significant similarities with the description of social institutions by French sociologists Marcel Mauss and Emile Durkheim, who also drew on insights from late-nineteenth-century folk psychology and anthropology.

["Directed perception", "mood", "social reinforcement". Sketches towards the historical semantics of Ludwik Fleck's Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact]. / "Gerichtetes Wahrnehmen", "Stimmung", "soziale Verstärkung" : Zur historischen Semantik einiger Grundbegriffe der Lehre vom Denkstil und Denkkollektiv.

This article analyses three basic concepts of Ludwik Fleck's Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact. It shows first that Fleck's notion of "directed perception" is closely linked to Jakob von Uexküll's writings on the "Umwelt" of animals and humans. The article then proposes to regard the epistemological debates surrounding parapsychology as an important testing ground for the Fleckian concept of "mood" and his concomitant hypotheses about "the tenacity of systems of opinion and the harmony of illusions". It finally argues that Fleck's modification of Wilhelm Jerusalem's idea of the "social consolidation" of knowledge helps us to understand the indebtedness of Fleck towards early functionalist sociology as well as his strong belief in "specific historical laws governing the development of ideas"The historical semantics of Fleck's works hence proves that his insights are neither marginal nor revolutionary but rather deeply rooted within scientific traditions from the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

[E. M. Jellinek's silenced and silencing transgenerational story]. / E.M. Jellinek elnémitott és elnémuló transzgeneracios története.

Jellinek is a kind of archetypal character for future generations in the field of addiction studies. His implosion in the arena of alcoholism around the age of 50 was an unexpected challenge to medical science. We know very little about his own role models giving an intellectual and moral compass to his pragmatic creativity. More than 30 years has passed since Jellinek's death when an American sociologist Ron Roizen started unearthing his silent story. Roizen discerned that there are a lot of unsaid and muted issues in his personal Hungarian past. Our paper, based on the authors' research in Hungarian archives and other sources reveals that not just Jellinek's personal but his transgenerational narrative has been not-yet-said. This silenced and silencing history appears an unfinished business of acculturation of the family, which started prior to four generations. Authors have been concluding that the issue of religious conversion is a critical point in the process of acculturation. They examine the counter move of loyalty to family values and driving force of assimilation making their story unspeakable.

[Anniversaries of Josef Thomayer - 85 years since the death, 160 years since the birth]. / Výrocí Josefa Thomayera - 85 let od smrti, 160 let od narození

Study summarises the life, work, pedagogical and popularization activities of Josef Thomayer on the basis of his publications and writings as well as archival sources.

[Alienation to burn-out. Psyche and the Universe of Technology]. / Dall'Alienazione al Burn-out. la Psiche e l'Universo della Tecnica.

The new D. Lgs. N 81, 2008 Article 28 paragraph 1 sanctions that the risk assessment must involve all the possible risks to safety and health of workers, including the work-related stress factors. Stressors at work may vary as to: quantity of work assigned, whether excessive or inadequate; lack of recognition or reward for good job performance; degree of responsibility; precariousness of work; emotional pressures exerted on workers; violence and harassment of psychological nature, poor balance between work and private life. The need man has to understand the causes of his psycho-physical and social disease are old. Only the words we use when dealing with the topic has changed over the time: once it was Alienation now it is Burn-out. The concept of alienation, which has been very important over the time, has many different aspects and has had countless interpretations (which have followed one another), the psycho-analytical, the sociological analysis and the Marxist one, Burnout is actually a syndrome characterized by three interrelated dimensions: exhaustion, cynicism and inefficacy. Therefore it is important to prevent, eliminate or reduce problems related to occupational stress. Among preventive measures, the Europe Agreement identified in the management and in the communication the information necessary to define the goals of the company and the role each employee has. Moreover information and formation are considered the necessary elements to increase awareness and understanding of the problem, its potential causes and possible ways of approading it. Our research group, has developed targeted questionnaires, biological indicators and medical instrumental examinations the occupational doctors can make use of to assess these issues.

[A contribution to the development of advertising in pharmacy II. Historical development of regulation of advertising of medicinal products]. / Príspevek k vývoji reklamy ve farmacii II* Historický vývoj regulace reklamy lécivých prípravku

The article deals with the development of regulation of advertising of medicinal products in the Czech Lands of the Habsburg Monarchy and Czechoslovakia in the years 1775-1938. Advertising medicines had and has its specifics and its regulation had been addressed by specific standards and linked to other health laws and regulations. Regulation of advertising of medicinal products has undergone a long process from the initial total ban on advertising to the establishment of clear rules, some of which, such as restrictions on advertising prescription-only medicines only to the professional healthcare press, are still valid.

[José Juan Verocay, "el patólogo de Praga" (on occasion of the 100th anniversary of his habilitation in Prague)]. / José Juan Verocay, "el patólogo de Praga" (ke 100. výrocí jeho prazské habilitace).

José Juan Verocay was born on June 16, 1876 in Paysandú, Uruguay to Italian immigrants; in 1887 they sent him to Cortina d'Ampezzo to learn languages first; he then graduated from the high school in Trento (1897) and from the German Medical Faculty in Prague (1904) where he, a disciple of Hanns Chiari, became the 1st demonstrator (1902), 3rd (1904) to 1st assistant (1905), and volunteer (from 1908) at the Department of Pathological Anatomy. He repeatedly substituted the professors Chiari (until 1906), Kretz (1907-1910), and Ghon (from 1910) during their absence. Anomalies and neoplasms prevailed among his research subjects. In the paper "Zur Kenntnis der ¼Neurofibrome«" (1910) he introduced the term "neurinoma" for a tumor with characteristic structures later named "Verocay bodies". On the basis of the paper he was habilitated for pathological anatomy as private docent at the German Medical Faculty in Prague (1911). During World War I he served for the Austro-Hungarian army at military hospitals in Chrudim (Bohemia) and Vienna. After the war he returned to Uruguay to work as a general practitioner in his native region (1919-1921), thereafter in Montevideo as head of pathological laboratories at the military hospital (1921-1925), at the Dental School (1925-1927), and at the Medical Faculty Department of Neurology (from March 19, 1927). As early as on May 3, 1927, however, he had to retire due to rapid worsening of his pulmonary tuberculosis. The renowned scientist remained a stranger in his own country ("el patólogo de Praga"); he never gained professorship except for a symbolic proclamation by devoted students on August 24, 1927, two days before he left for Europe to undergo treatment. On December 26, 1927 he died in Dubí (a spa near Teplice in Bohemia, Czechoslovakia, now Czech Republic).

["Professor is well". The correspondence between Max Schur and Marie Bonaparte]. / "Professor geht es gut"! Der Briefwechsel zwischen Max Schur und Marie Bonaparte.

The correspondence between Freud's doctor and his "Princess" spans the period 1929-1962, and comprises over 90 letters, mostly concerned with Freud's health but also touching upon Schur's permanent dilemma--to emigrate or to stay with Freud--and upon the dire situation of his family and friends on behalf of whom he appeals to Marie for help. After Freud's death the letters change in focus.