Safety Concerns for Persons with Dementia in Senior Housing: A Qualitative Study with Korean American Caregivers in Los Angeles.

Subsidized senior housing helps many socioeconomically disadvantaged older adults pursue independent living and aging in place. However, cognitive impairment or dementia poses a critical challenge to many residents' ability to live independently and safely. Focusing on Korean American dementia caregivers, a group known to be vulnerable to caregiving burden but understudied, we explored the safety of persons with dementia in senior housing from the perspectives of caregivers. Qualitative data from nine caregivers whose care recipients were current or former residents of subsidized senior housing in Los Angeles were analyzed by the constant comparative method. Major concerns emerged were: (1) fire risks, (2) wandering, (3) physical injury (e.g., self-harm, falls), and (4) potential neglect. Caregivers also mentioned errors in the self-administration of medications, potential financial exploitation, and interpersonal conflicts. These concerns provide implications for services and programs for the safety of persons with dementia who live in senior housing.

Health Care Costs of Alzheimer's and Related Dementias Within a Medicare Managed Care Provider.

BACKGROUND: Although one third of Medicare beneficiaries are enrolled in Medicare Advantage (MA) plans, there is limited information about the cost of treating Alzheimer disease and related dementias (ADRD) in these settings. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to estimate direct health care costs attributable to ADRD among older adults within a large MA plan. RESEARCH DESIGN: A retrospective cohort design was used to estimate direct total, outpatient, inpatient, ambulatory pharmacy, and nursing home costs for 3 years before and after an incident ADRD diagnosis for 927 individuals diagnosed with ADRD relative to a sex-matched and birth year-matched set of 2945 controls. SUBJECT: Adults 65 years of age and older enrolled in the Kaiser Permanente Washington MA plan and the Adult Changes in Thought (ACT) Study, a prospective longitudinal cohort study of ADRD and brain aging. MEASURES: Data on monthly health service use obtained from health system electronic medical records for the period 1992-2012. RESULTS: Total monthly health care costs for individuals with ADRD are statistically greater (P<0.05) than controls beginning in the third month before diagnosis and remain significantly greater through the eighth month following diagnosis. Greater total health costs are driven by significantly (P<0.05) greater nursing home costs among individuals diagnosed with ADRD beginning in the third month prediagnosis. Although total costs were no longer significantly greater at 8 months following diagnosis, nursing home costs remained higher for the people with dementia through the 3 years postdiagnosis we analyzed. CONCLUSION: Greater total health care costs among individuals with ADRD are primarily driven by nursing home costs.

Cost-effectiveness of the Namaste care family program for nursing home residents with advanced dementia in comparison with usual care: a cluster-randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Dementia is a progressive disease that decreases quality of life of persons with dementia and is associated with high societal costs. The burden of caring for persons with dementia also decreases the quality of life of family caregivers. The objective of this study was to assess the societal cost-effectiveness of Namaste Care Family program in comparison with usual care in nursing home residents with advanced dementia. METHODS: Nursing homes were randomized to either Namaste Care Family program or usual care. Outcome measures of the cluster-randomized trial in 231 residents included Quality of Life in Late-Stage Dementia (QUALID) and the Gain in Alzheimer Care Instrument (GAIN) for family caregivers over 12 months of follow-up. Health states were measured using the EQ-5D-3L questionnaire which were translated into utilities. QALYs were calculated by multiplying the amount of time a participant spent in a specific health state with the utility score associated with that health state. Healthcare utilization costs were estimated using standard unit costs, while intervention costs were estimated using a bottom-up approach. Missing cost and effect data were imputed using multiple imputation. Bootstrapped multilevel models were used after multiple imputation. Cost-effectiveness acceptability curves were estimated. RESULTS: The Namaste Care Family program was more effective than usual care in terms of QUALID (- 0.062, 95%CI: - 0.40 to 0.28), QALY (0.0017, 95%CI: - 0.059 to 0.063) and GAIN (0.075, 95%CI: - 0.20 to 0.35). Total societal costs were lower for the Namaste Care Family program as compared to usual care (- 552 €, 95%CI: - 2920 to 1903). However, these differences were not statistically significant. The probability of cost-effectiveness at a ceiling ratio of 0 €/unit of effect extra was 0.70 for the QUALID, QALY and GAIN. CONCLUSIONS: The Namaste Care Family program is dominant over usual care and, thus, cost-effective, although statistical uncertainty was considerable. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Netherlands Trial Register ( http://www.trialregister.nl/trialreg/index.asp , identifier: NL5570, date of registration: 2016/03/23).

Impact of a Safe Resident Handling Program in Nursing Homes on Return-to-Work and Re-injury Outcomes Following Work Injury.

Purpose This study examined the impact of a Safe Resident Handling Program (SRHP) on length of disability and re-injury, following work-related injuries of nursing home workers. Resident handling-related injuries and back injuries were of particular interest. Methods A large national nursing home corporation introduced a SRHP followed by three years of training for 136 centers. Lost-time workers' compensation claims (3 years pre-SRHP and 6 years post-SRHP) were evaluated. For each claim, length of first episode of disability and recurrence of disabling injury were evaluated over time. Differences were assessed using Chi square analyses and a generalized linear model, and "avoided" costs were projected. Results The SRHP had no impact on length of disability, but did appear to significantly reduce the rate of recurrence among resident handling-related injuries. As indemnity and medical costs were three times higher for claimants with recurrent disabling injuries, the SRHP resulted in significant "avoided" costs due to "avoided" recurrence. Conclusions In addition to reducing overall injury rates, SRHPs appear to improve long-term return-to-work success by reducing the rate of recurrent disabling injuries resulting in work disability. In this study, the impact was sustained over years, even after a formal training and implementation program ended. Since back pain is inherently a recurrent condition, results suggest that SRHPs help workers remain at work and return-to-work.

The direct cost of pressure injuries in an Australian residential aged care setting.

Pressure injuries have a negative effect on well-being and the cost of treatment places a significant burden on the health care system. Research has, however, tended to extrapolate or estimate the cost of pressure injuries resulting in uncertainty regarding the true cost of this condition. The aim of this prospective observational study was to quantify the cost of pressure injury treatment in the Australian residential aged care setting. An electronic health care record audit and observation of usual pressure injury treatment was undertaken with a sample of 20 participants who had 23 pressure injuries. The actual treatment cost, an evidence-based practice model cost, and a projected treatment cost were calculated. The overall cost of pressure injury treatment was AU$98,489.22. The average daily cost by pressure injury stage was AU$26.42 for a Stage 1 pressure injury, AU$37.17 for a Stage 2 pressure injury, AU$30.01 for a Stage 3 pressure injury, and AU$10.22 for an Unstageable pressure injury. The projected cost of treatment was AU$104,510.41. At 42 days this cost extended to AU$116,552.79. This study has quantified the cost of pressure injury treatment in a residential aged care setting. The study may inform future efforts to accurately calculate the cost of PIs and the effectiveness of strategies to reduce the economic burden of this condition.

Impact of person-centred care training and person-centred activities on quality of life, agitation, and antipsychotic use in people with dementia living in nursing homes: A cluster-randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Agitation is a common, challenging symptom affecting large numbers of people with dementia and impacting on quality of life (QoL). There is an urgent need for evidence-based, cost-effective psychosocial interventions to improve these outcomes, particularly in the absence of safe, effective pharmacological therapies. This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of a person-centred care and psychosocial intervention incorporating an antipsychotic review, WHELD, on QoL, agitation, and antipsychotic use in people with dementia living in nursing homes, and to determine its cost. METHODS AND FINDINGS: This was a randomised controlled cluster trial conducted between 1 January 2013 and 30 September 2015 that compared the WHELD intervention with treatment as usual (TAU) in people with dementia living in 69 UK nursing homes, using an intention to treat analysis. All nursing homes allocated to the intervention received staff training in person-centred care and social interaction and education regarding antipsychotic medications (antipsychotic review), followed by ongoing delivery through a care staff champion model. The primary outcome measure was QoL (DEMQOL-Proxy). Secondary outcomes were agitation (Cohen-Mansfield Agitation Inventory [CMAI]), neuropsychiatric symptoms (Neuropsychiatric Inventory-Nursing Home Version [NPI-NH]), antipsychotic use, global deterioration (Clinical Dementia Rating), mood (Cornell Scale for Depression in Dementia), unmet needs (Camberwell Assessment of Need for the Elderly), mortality, quality of interactions (Quality of Interactions Scale [QUIS]), pain (Abbey Pain Scale), and cost. Costs were calculated using cost function figures compared with usual costs. In all, 847 people were randomised to WHELD or TAU, of whom 553 completed the 9-month randomised controlled trial. The intervention conferred a statistically significant improvement in QoL (DEMQOL-Proxy Z score 2.82, p = 0.0042; mean difference 2.54, SEM 0.88; 95% CI 0.81, 4.28; Cohen's D effect size 0.24). There were also statistically significant benefits in agitation (CMAI Z score 2.68, p = 0.0076; mean difference 4.27, SEM 1.59; 95% CI -7.39, -1.15; Cohen's D 0.23) and overall neuropsychiatric symptoms (NPI-NH Z score 3.52, p < 0.001; mean difference 4.55, SEM 1.28; 95% CI -7.07,-2.02; Cohen's D 0.30). Benefits were greatest in people with moderately severe dementia. There was a statistically significant benefit in positive care interactions as measured by QUIS (19.7% increase, SEM 8.94; 95% CI 2.12, 37.16, p = 0.03; Cohen's D 0.55). There were no statistically significant differences between WHELD and TAU for the other outcomes. A sensitivity analysis using a pre-specified imputation model confirmed statistically significant benefits in DEMQOL-Proxy, CMAI, and NPI-NH outcomes with the WHELD intervention. Antipsychotic drug use was at a low stable level in both treatment groups, and the intervention did not reduce use. The WHELD intervention reduced cost compared to TAU, and the benefits achieved were therefore associated with a cost saving. The main limitation was that antipsychotic review was based on augmenting processes within care homes to trigger medical review and did not in this study involve proactive primary care education. An additional limitation was the inherent challenge of assessing QoL in this patient group. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that the WHELD intervention confers benefits in terms of QoL, agitation, and neuropsychiatric symptoms, albeit with relatively small effect sizes, as well as cost saving in a model that can readily be implemented in nursing homes. Future work should consider how to facilitate sustainability of the intervention in this setting. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN Registry ISRCTN62237498.

Clustered domestic residential aged care in Australia: fewer hospitalisations and better quality of life.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the outcomes and costs of clustered domestic and standard Australian models of residential aged care. DESIGN: Cross-sectional retrospective analysis of linked health service data, January 2015 - February 2016. SETTING: 17 aged care facilities in four Australian states providing clustered (four) or standard Australian (13) models of residential aged care. PARTICIPANTS: People with or without cognitive impairment residing in a residential aged care facility (RACF) for at least 12 months, not in palliative care, with a family member willing to participate on their behalf if required. 901 residents were eligible; 541 consented to participation (24% self-consent, 76% proxy consent). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Quality of life (measured with EQ-5D-5L); medical service use; health and residential care costs. RESULTS: After adjusting for patient- and facility-level factors, individuals residing in clustered models of care had better quality of life (adjusted mean EQ-5D-5L score difference, 0.107; 95% CI, 0.028-0.186; P = 0.008), lower hospitalisation rates (adjusted rate ratio, 0.32; 95% CI, 0.13-0.79; P = 0.010), and lower emergency department presentation rates (adjusted rate ratio, 0.27; 95% CI, 0.14-0.53; P < 0.001) than residents of standard care facilities. Unadjusted facility running costs were similar for the two models, but, after adjusting for resident- and facility-related factors, it was estimated that overall there is a saving of $12 962 (2016 values; 95% CI, $11 092-14 831) per person per year in residential care costs. CONCLUSIONS: Clustered domestic models of residential care are associated with better quality of life and fewer hospitalisations for residents, without increasing whole of system costs.

Cost-effectiveness of food, supplement and environmental interventions to address malnutrition in residential aged care: a systematic review.

Background: observational studies have shown that nutritional strategies to manage malnutrition may be cost-effective in aged care; but more robust economic data is needed to support and encourage translation to practice. Therefore, the aim of this systematic review is to compare the cost-effectiveness of implementing nutrition interventions targeting malnutrition in aged care homes versus usual care. Setting: residential aged care homes. Methods: systematic literature review of studies published between January 2000 and August 2017 across 10 electronic databases. Cochrane Risk of Bias tool and GRADE were used to evaluate the quality of the studies. Results: eight included studies (3,098 studies initially screened) reported on 11 intervention groups, evaluating the effect of modifications to dining environment (n = 1), supplements (n = 5) and food-based interventions (n = 5). Interventions had a low cost of implementation (<£2.30/resident/day) and provided clinical improvement for a range of outcomes including weight, nutritional status and dietary intake. Supplements and food-based interventions further demonstrated a low cost per quality adjusted life year or unit of physical function improvement. GRADE assessment revealed the quality of the body of evidence that introducing malnutrition interventions, whether they be environmental, supplements or food-based, are cost-effective in aged care homes was low. Conclusion: this review suggests supplements and food-based nutrition interventions in the aged care setting are clinically effective, have a low cost of implementation and may be cost-effective at improving clinical outcomes associated with malnutrition. More studies using well-defined frameworks for economic analysis, stronger study designs with improved quality, along with validated malnutrition measures are needed to confirm and increase confidence with these findings.

Current prevention and control of health care-associated infections in long-term care facilities for the elderly in Japan.

Residents of long-term care facilities for the elderly are vulnerable to health care-associated infections. However, compared to medical institutions, long-term care facilities for the elderly lag behind in health care-associated infection control and prevention. We conducted a epidemiologic study to clarify the current status of infection control in long-term care facilities for the elderly in Japan. A questionnaire survey on the aspects of infection prevention and control was developed according to SHEA/APIC guidelines and was distributed to 617 long-term care facilities for the elderly in the province of Osaka during November 2016 and January 2017. The response rate was 16.9%. The incidence rates of health care-associated infection outbreaks and residents with health care-associated infections were 23.4 per 100 facility-years and 0.18 per 1,000 resident-days, respectively. Influenza and acute gastroenteritis were reported most frequently. Active surveillance to identify the carrier of multiple drug-resistant organisms was not common. The overall compliance with 21 items selected from the SHEA/APIC guidelines was approximately 79.2%. All facilities had infection control manuals and an assigned infection control professional. The economic burdens of infection control were approximately US$ 182.6 per resident-year during fiscal year 2015. Importantly, these data implied that physicians and nurses were actively contributed to higher SHEA/APIC guideline compliance rates and the advancement of infection control measures in long-term care facilities for the elderly. Key factors are discussed to further improve the infection control in long-term care facilities for the elderly, particularly from economic and social structural standpoints.

Experience of establishing an acute geriatric outreach service versus subacute service to nursing homes.

To share our experience of establishing an acute outreach service to nursing homes and to evaluate the impact of such service on emergency department presentations, data were drawn from a pre-existing database from 2013 to 2017. Of the 986 acute patients treated in 12 nursing homes over a 23-month period, the acute geriatric outreach service was shown to be safe, with few adverse events (one allergic reaction) and 5.3% of patients required transfer to hospital. The acute service decreased emergency department presentation of nursing home patients by 10% compared to the subacute service (incidence rate ratio = 0.90; 95% confidence interval: 0.84-0.96; P = 0.001). Cost-benefit analysis showed for every $1 spent, a saving of $5 was realised.

The eldercare landscape: Evidence from California.

Although the literature suggests that nursing home location is instrumental to the efficient functioning of the long-term care industry, there has been little research directly focused on the spatial distribution of nursing homes. We discuss factors that may influence nursing home location choice, emphasizing agglomeration economies around hospitals. We estimate econometric models of location using information on all freestanding, MediCal-licensed long-term care facilities in the state of California. We find that nursing homes are more likely to locate in the same Census tract as a hospital and are more likely to locate in tracts nearer to those containing a hospital.

Prescription patterns and drug costs in German patients with dementia in nursing homes and home-care settings
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AIMS: To analyze prescription patterns and drug costs in German patients with dementia who are in home-care settings and nursing homes. METHODS: The present retrospective study based on the Disease Analyzer epidemiological database and included 41,064 patients treated by general practitioners (GPs) and 20,649 patients treated by psychiatric practitioners (PPs), who were diagnosed with dementia in 2014. Four different types of antidementia therapy were included in the analysis. The shares of prescriptions and the associated costs in dementia patients in home-care settings and nursing homes were estimated. Regression analyses were performed to study the impact of the type of residence on the likelihood of receiving a defined therapy and incurring its associated cost. RESULTS: Antidementives were more frequently prescribed to patients in home-care settings, whereas antidepressants, antipsychotics, and benzodiazepines were more commonly administered to nursing-home patients in both the GP and the PP groups. Individuals residing in nursing homes had a lower likelihood of receiving antidementives but exhibited a higher likelihood of being prescribed antidepressants, antipsychotics, and benzodiazepines. The total cost of therapy was higher in nursing homes than in home-care settings (GPs: difference of € 27.20; PPs: difference of € 107.90). The cost of antidementives was significantly lower in GP patients residing in nursing homes than in GP patients living at home. There was no significant difference in the cost of antidementives in the PP groups. By contrast, the costs of the three other families of drugs were lower in individuals cared for at home than in individuals residing in nursing homes, in both practice types. CONCLUSION: Prescription patterns and the drug costs in dementia patients significantly differed between home-care settings and nursing-home settings.
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Predictors of activity involvement in dementia care homes: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Despite the finding that involvement in activities is one of the most important needs of residents with dementia living in care homes, care facilities struggle to fulfill this need. Over the years, various factors are suggested which may contribute to or disable activity provision in dementia care homes. These include limited financial resources, task oriented staff and disease-related characteristics of residents. This study aims to further clarify which of these factors predict higher activity involvement. METHODS: Data were derived from the second measurement (2011) of the Living Arrangements for people with Dementia study. One thousand two hundred eighteen people residing in 139 dementia care homes were involved. Forty predictors of higher involvement were studied. Multilevel backward regression analyses were performed. RESULTS: The most important predictors of higher involvement were: absence of agitation, less ADL dependency, and a higher cognitive status of the residents, higher staff educational level, lower experienced job demands by care staff and a smaller number of residents living in the dementia care wards of a facility. More social supervisor support as perceived by staff was found to predict less activity involvement. CONCLUSIONS: To increase the activity involvement of care home residents with dementia it seems vital to: 1) reduce staff's experienced job demands; 2) elevate their overall educational level; 3) train staff to provide suitable activities, taking account of the behavior and preserved capabilities of residents; and 4) foster transition towards small-scale care. In order to achieve these aims, care organizations might need to evaluate the use of their financial means.

How care homes are being short-changed.

In England, four in ten care home residents pay the full cost of their care. But new research from analysts LaingBuisson suggests they may also be paying for the care of those who get help from the state.

Setting The Stage For 2017.

Seniors Housing, Skilled Nursing, And The Economy.

Observational Evidence of For-Profit Delivery and Inferior Nursing Home Care: When Is There Enough Evidence for Policy Change?

Margaret McGregor and colleagues consider Bradford Hill's framework for examining causation in observational research for the association between nursing home care quality and for-profit ownership.

Health Care Expenditures After Initiating Long-term Services and Supports in the Community Versus in a Nursing Facility.

BACKGROUND: Individuals who receive long-term services and supports (LTSS) are among the most costly participants in the Medicare and Medicaid programs. OBJECTIVES: To compare health care expenditures among users of Medicaid home and community-based services (HCBS) versus those using extended nursing facility care. RESEARCH DESIGN: Retrospective cohort analysis of California dually eligible adult Medicaid and Medicare beneficiaries who initiated Medicaid LTSS, identified as HCBS or extended nursing facility care, in 2006 or 2007. SUBJECTS: Propensity score matching for demographic, health, and functional characteristics resulted in a subsample of 34,660 users who initiated Medicaid HCBS versus extended nursing facility use. Those with developmental disabilities or in managed care plans were excluded. MEASURES: Average monthly adjusted acute, postacute, long-term, and total Medicare and Medicaid expenditures for the 12 months following initiation of either HCBS or extended nursing facility care. RESULTS: Those initiating extended nursing facility care had, on average, $2919 higher adjusted total health care expenditures per month compared with those who initiated HCBS. The difference was primarily attributable to spending on LTSS $2855. On average, the monthly LTSS expenditures were higher for Medicare $1501 and for Medicaid $1344 when LTSS was provided in a nursing facility rather than in the community. CONCLUSIONS: The higher cost of delivering LTSS in a nursing facility rather than in the community was not offset by lower acute and postacute spending. Medicare and Medicaid contribute similar amounts to the LTSS cost difference and both could benefit financially by redirecting care from institutions to the community.

The PiTSTOP study: a feasibility cluster randomized trial of delirium prevention in care homes for older people.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: delirium is a distressing but potentially preventable condition common in older people in long-term care. It is associated with increased morbidity, mortality, functional decline, hospitalization and significant healthcare costs. Multicomponent interventions, addressing delirium risk factors, have been shown to reduce delirium by one-third in hospitals. It is not known whether this approach is also effective in long-term care. In previous work, we designed a bespoke delirium prevention intervention, called 'Stop Delirium!' In preparation for a definitive trial of Stop Delirium, we sought to address key aspects of trial design for the particular circumstances of care homes. DESIGN: a cluster randomized feasibility study with an embedded process evaluation. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: residents of 14 care homes for older people in one metropolitan district in the UK. INTERVENTION: Stop Delirium!: a 16-month-enhanced educational package to support care home staff to address key delirium risk factors. Control homes received usual care. MEASUREMENTS: we collected data to determine the following: recruitment and attrition; delirium rates and variability between homes; feasibility of measuring delirium, resource use, quality of life, hospital admissions and falls; and intervention implementation and adherence. RESULTS: two-thirds (215) of eligible care home residents were recruited. One-month delirium prevalence was 4.0% in intervention and 7.1% in control homes. Proposed outcome measurements were feasible, although our approach appeared to underestimate delirium. Health economic evaluation was feasible using routinely collected data. CONCLUSION: a definitive trial of delirium prevention in long-term care is needed but will require some further design modifications and pilot work.

Cost-effectiveness of a physical exercise programme for residents of care homes: a pilot study.

BACKGROUND: Oomph! Wellness organises interactive exercise and activity classes (Oomph! classes) for older people in care homes. We investigated the cost-effectiveness of Oomph! classes. METHODS: Health-related quality of life was measured using the EQ-5D-5 L questionnaire at three time points; 3 months and 1 week prior to the start of the classes and after 3 months of Oomph! classes. Costs included the costs of organising the classes, training instructors and health service use (General Practitioner (GP) and hospital outpatient visits). To determine the cost-effectiveness of Oomph! classes, total costs and quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) during the 3 months after initiation of the classes were compared to the total costs and QALYs of the 3 months prior to the classes and extrapolated to a 1-year time horizon. Uncertainty was taken into account using one-way and probabilistic sensitivity analysis. RESULTS: Sixteen residents completed all three EQ-5D-5 L questionnaires. There was a decrease in mean health related quality of life per participant in the 3 months before Oomph! classes (0.56 to 0.52, p = 0.26) and an increase in the 3 months after the start of Oomph! classes (0.52 to 0.60, p = 0.06), but the changes were not statistically significant. There were more GP visits after the start of Oomph! classes and fewer hospital outpatient visits, leading to a slight decrease in NHS costs (mean £132 vs £141 per participant), but the differences were not statistically significant (p = 0.79). In the base case scenario, total costs for Oomph! classes were £113 higher per participant than without Oomph! classes (£677 vs £564) and total QALYs were 0.074 higher (0.594 vs 0.520). The incremental costs per QALY gained were therefore £1531. The 95 % confidence intervals around the cost/QALY gained varied from dominant to dominated, meaning there was large uncertainty around the cost-effectiveness results. Given a willingness to pay threshold of £20,000 per QALY gained, Oomph! classes had a 62 %-86 % probability of being cost-effective depending on the scenario used. CONCLUSIONS: Preliminary evidence suggests that Oomph! classes may be cost-effective, but further evidence is needed about its impact on health-related quality of life and health service use.

Burden of Clostridium difficile-associated disease among patients residing in nursing homes: a population-based cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Clostridium difficile (C. difficile) infection (CDI) is the leading cause of nosocomial diarrhea in the United States. This study aimed to examine the incidence of CDI and evaluate mortality and economic burden of CDI in an elderly population who reside in nursing homes (NHs). METHODS: This was a population-based retrospective cohort study focusing on US NHs by linking Medicare 5% sample, Medicaid, Minimum Data Set (MDS) (2008-10). NH residents aged ≥65 years with continuous enrollment in Medicare and/or Medicaid Fee-for-Service plan for ≥12 months and ≥2 quarterly MDS assessments were eligible for the study. The incidence rate was calculated as the number of CDI episodes by 100,000 person-years. A 1:4 propensity score matched sample of cohorts with and without CDI was generated to assess mortality and health care costs following the first CDI. RESULTS: Among 32,807 NH residents, 941 residents had ≥1 episode of CDI in 2009, with an incidence of 3359.9 per 100,000 person-years. About 30% CDI episodes occurred in the hospital setting. NH residents with CDI (vs without CDI) were more likely to have congestive heart failure, renal disease, cerebrovascular disease, hospitalizations, and outpatient antibiotic use. During the follow-up period, the 30-day (14.7% vs 4.3%, P < 0.001), 60-day (22.7% vs 7.5%, P < 0.001), 6-month (36.3% vs 18.3%, P < 0.001), and 1-year mortality rates (48.2% vs 31.1%, P < 0.001) were significantly higher among the CDI residents vs non-CDI residents. Total health care costs within 2 months following the first CDI episode were also significantly higher for CDI residents ($28,621 vs $13,644, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: CDI presents a serious public health issue in NHs. Mortality, health care utilization, and associated costs were significant following incident CDI episodes.