The impact of 3D and 2D TV watching on neurophysiological responses and cognitive functioning in adults.

BACKGROUND: Watching three-dimensional television (3D TV) may strain the eyes. However, other potential harmful effects of 3D TV watching have been rarely investigated. The current study examined the impact of 3D TV watching on neurophysiological responses and cognitive functioning as compared with two-dimensional TV (2D TV) watching. METHODS: A total of 72 individuals were randomly assigned to either a 3D TV watching group or a 2D TV watching group. Electroencephalography (EEG) was used to measure neurophysiological responses, and computerized neurocognitive tests were conducted immediately before and after TV watching. The Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ) was used to assess visual discomfort. RESULTS: There was a significant change in visual discomfort between the two groups (SSQ score at baseline: 2.28 ± 3.05 for the 3D TV group and 3.69 ± 3.49 for the 2D TV group; SSQ score after watching TV: 4.6 ± 3.35 for the 3D TV group and 4.03 ± 3.47 for the 2D TV group), and this change was greater for the 3D TV watching group (P = 0.025). However, 3D TV watching did not have a differential impact on EEG responses. Furthermore, there were no significant differences between the groups in terms of changes in cognitive performance, except for a subtle difference in backward digit span performance. CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that 3D TV watching is as safe as 2D TV watching in terms of neurophysiological responses and cognitive functioning. Potential harmful effects of TV viewing might be similar regardless of whether 3D or 2D TV is viewed.

Is three-dimensional prenatal ultrasound necessary: pregnant women's point of view.

OBJECTIVES: The role and applicability of three-dimensional ultrasound (3D-US) in perinatology has been repeatedly discussed in the literature. Regardless, our knowledge about patient expectations remains limited. We aimed at determining the expectations, perception and knowledge of pregnant women about 3D-US. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Upon admission to the labor unit, the women filled out a questionnaire, with the help of a doctor investigating sociodemographic data, pregnancy and delivery history previous experiences and expectations for US imaging. RESULTS: A total of 644 pregnant women were included in the study Respondents declared that approximately 70% of all kinds of structural abnormalities could be detected by 3D-US and estimated its reliability at nearly 70%. While 60% of the participants underwent 3D-US, 70% of them believed that every pregnant woman should undergo such test. Also, 457 (70.9%) of the participants were of the opinion that every pregnant woman must undergo 3D-US imaging, whereas 173 (26.8%) did not think 3D-US imaging was necessary CONCLUSIONS: To the best of our knowledge, this has been the first study on patient opinions regarding the need for 3D-US imaging during pregnancy Although the participants were not certain about the harmful effects of 3D-US, the majority believed that it was necessary for every pregnant woman to undergo such testing. Obviously patients must be instructed on the limitations of US imaging before the examination to clarify any misunderstandings about the possibilities such a technique may offer

Three-dimensional ultrasound and maternal bonding, a third trimester study and a review.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the effect of third trimester three-dimensional and four-dimensional (3D/4D) versus two-dimensional (2D) ultrasound (US) of the fetal face on maternal bonding. Studies quantifying the psychological effect of 3D/4D US on mothers, pregnant of a fetus with no detectable abnormalities, were reviewed. METHODS: One hundred sixty Caucasian women attended a third trimester 3D/4D or 2D US examination. Women filled out the Maternal Antenatal Attachment Scale (MAAS) 1 to 2 weeks before (MAAS1) and 1 to 2 weeks after (MAAS2) the US examination. Visibility, recognition and attractiveness were assessed. RESULTS: Within both US groups, the MAAS2 scores were significantly higher than the MAAS1 scores (p < 0.0001). No differences in MAAS scores between the US groups emerged. Visibility and recognition were significantly positively related with the increase in MAAS scores (p = 0.003 and p = 0.042) in the 3D/4D group. Of 13 psychological studies, eight studies evaluated bonding and found no difference between 3D/4D and 2D US. The effect of 3D/4D US on satisfaction or perception showed conflicting results, and on anxiety/stress, reduction was the same as after 2D US. CONCLUSIONS: Bonding increases after either a 3D/4D or 2D US. The effect of 3D/4D US on bonding is stronger at better degrees of visibility and recognition.

The effects of different navigation maps on driving performance.

This study evaluated the driving performance of drivers presented with 2D and 3D electronic navigation maps and a traditional paper map with various route structures. A heads-up display was used to show the different driving conditions for each navigation map system. Results revealed that the drivers using an electronic navigation map performed better compared to the drivers using a paper map. The results also indicated that drivers who used 2D-regular pattern or 2D-irregular corner maps performed more efficiently than the drivers who used a 3D-regular pattern or 3D-irregular corner maps in reaching their destinations. In addition, drivers can save time and fuel by using 2D navigation maps in unfamiliar regions.

Older women's comfort with 3-D body scanning technology as compared with younger women.

This study examined older women's comfort with 3-D body scanning and explored its use for enhancing quality of life. Women (66 old; 66 young) were scanned and surveyed pre- and post-imaging. Comfort with the process and viewing the images were ascertained. Few differences between the groups emerged. Higher Body Mass Indices were related to greater body dissatisfaction, but age was not a factor. Implications for body scanning having the potential to improve quality of life for older women are presented.

Patient and healthcare professional satisfaction with 3D imaging new technologies for medical purposes. / Satisfacción de pacientes y profesionales con las nuevas tecnologías de imagen tridimensional aplicadas a la medicina.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Advances in the field of three-dimensional scanning have enabled the development of instruments that can generate images that are useful in medicine. On the other hand, satisfaction studies are becoming increasingly important in the evaluation of quality in healthcare. We aimed to evaluate patients' and professionals' satisfaction with the use of a three-dimensional scanner applied to chest wall malformations. MATERIAL AND METHODS: In the framework of a study to validate the results of three-dimensional scanning technology, we developed questionnaires to measure satisfaction among patients and professionals. We analyzed the results with descriptive statistics. RESULTS: We included 42 patients and 10 professionals. Patients rated the speed and harmlessness positively; the mean overall level of satisfaction was 4.71 on a scale from 1 to 5. Among professionals, the level of satisfaction was lower, especially with regards to the treatment of the image; the mean overall level of satisfaction was 3.1. CONCLUSIONS: Patients rated 3D scanning technology highly, but professionals were less satisfied due to the difficulty of treating the images and lack of familiarity with the system. For this technology to reach its maximum potential, it must be simplified and more widely disseminated.

Three-dimensional laparoscopy in urology: Initial experience after 100 cases.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the efficacy of three-dimensional (3D) laparoscopy in urological procedures in a cohort study compared to two-dimensional (2D) laparoscopy. METHODS: From October 2016 to August 2017, 100 patients underwent various urological procedures with 3D laparoscopy performed by a single experienced surgeon at the University Medical Centre of Ho Chi Minh City. The surgeon's subjective assessment of image quality, depth perception, ease of intra-corporeal suturing and knotting was recorded. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Adults (STAI-6) short version was used to quantify aspects of stress experienced during each operative procedure. A subgroup of 73 complicated 3D laparoscopic procedures (nephron sparing nephrectomy, nephrectomy, adrenalectomy, pyeloplasty and ureterolithotomy) was compared to the same clinical parameter group of 74 two-dimensional laparoscopic procedures, performed by the same surgeon in the year before to define the differences in operative time, blood loss and time taken for critical surgical steps during the procedures. RESULTS: Mean time of operation was 112.8 min ± 14.5 (range 45-210 min). Mean estimated blood loss was 54.7 mL ± 8.2 (range 20-100 mL). The surgeon's subjective assessment of image quality, depth perception, operative strain, ease of intra-corporeal suturing, and knotting, and hand-eye coordination was considered as good in 100% of cases. Mean score of STAI-6 was 11.6 ± 2.17 (range 10-22). Subgroup data analysis was all statistically better for 3D compared to 2D. CONCLUSION: The use of 3D systems in laparoscopic urologic procedures resulted in better image quality and better surgeon performance with lower stress.

Neural correlates of the stereokinetic effect revealed by functional magnetic resonance imaging.

The stereokinetic effect (SKE) refers to a visual phenomenon in which a two-dimensional figure rotating in the fronto-parallel plane about the visual axis can create the impression of a three-dimensional (3-D) object. Although several characteristics of SKE suggest that the perceptual mechanisms involved in SKE may differ from those of the kinetic depth effect (KDE), the differences between SKE and KDE in neural mechanisms have not yet been investigated. In order to determine the cortical areas involved in SKE, we presented a variety of SKE stimuli in a series of functional magnetic resonance imaging experiments, controlling for motion and contrast energies as well as stimulus presentation paradigm. Cortical activation associated with SKE was observed in the middle temporal complex (hMT+), lateral occipital area (LO), V3B, inferior temporal gyrus (ITG), fusiform gyrus (FG), and dorsal intraparietal sulcus anterior (DIPSA). On the other hand, ITG, FG, and DIPSA were also activated by the static versions of SKE stimuli. hMT+, LO, and V3B are also known to be activated in KDE. These findings suggest that general motion-dependent 3-D object processing may be performed in these areas.

An unexplained three-dimensional percept emerging from a bundle of lines.

Perceptual grouping has been extensively studied, but some areas are still unexplored-in particular, the figural organizations that emerge when bundles of intersecting lines are drawn. Here, we will describe some figural organizations that emerge after the superimposition of bundles of lines forming the profile of regular triangular waves. By manipulating the lines' jaggedness and junction geometry (regular or irregular X junction) we could generate the following organizations: (a) a grid, or a figural configuration in which both the lines and closed contours are perceived, (b) a figure-ground organization composed of figures separated by portions of the background, and (c) a corrugated surface appearing as a multifaceted polyhedral shell crossed by ridges and valleys. An experiment was conducted with the aim at testing the role of the good-continuation and closure Gestalt factors. Good continuation prevails when the lines are straight or close to straightness, but its role is questionable in the appearance of a corrugated surface. This perceptual organization occurs despite the violation of the good-continuation rule and consists of a structure of such complexity so as to challenge algorithms of computer vision and stimulate a deeper understanding of the perceptual interpretation of groups of lines.

Perceiving crowd attention: Gaze following in human crowds with conflicting cues.

People automatically redirect their visual attention by following others' gaze orientation, a phenomenon called "gaze following." This is an evolutionarily generated socio-cognitive process that provides people with information about their environments. Often, however, people in crowds can have rather different gaze orientations. This study investigated how gaze following occurs in situations with many conflicting gazes. In two experiments, we modified the gaze cueing paradigm to use a crowd rather than a single individual. Specifically, participants were presented with a group of human avatars with differing gaze orientations, and the target appeared randomly on the left or right side of a display. We found that (a) when a marked difference existed in the number of avatars with divergent gaze orientations, participants automatically followed the majority's gaze orientation, and (b) the strongest gaze cue effect occurred when all gazes shared the same orientation, with the response superiority of the majority's oriented location monotonically diminishing with the number of gazes with divergent orientations. These findings suggested that the majority rule plays a role in gaze following behavior when individuals are confronted with conflicting multigaze scenes, and that an increasing subgroup size appears to enlarge the strength of the gaze cueing effect.

Effects of virtual human animation on emotion contagion in simulated inter-personal experiences.

We empirically examined the impact of virtual human animation on the emotional responses of participants in a medical virtual reality system for education in the signs and symptoms of patient deterioration. Participants were presented with one of two virtual human conditions in a between-subjects experiment, static (non-animated) and dynamic (animated). Our objective measures included the use of psycho-physical Electro Dermal Activity (EDA) sensors, and subjective measures inspired by social psychology research included the Differential Emotions Survey (DES IV) and Positive and Negative Affect Survey (PANAS). We analyzed the quantitative and qualitative measures associated with participants’ emotional state at four distinct time-steps in the simulated interpersonal experience as the virtual patient’s medical condition deteriorated. Results suggest that participants in the dynamic condition with animations exhibited a higher sense of co-presence and greater emotional response as compared to participants in the static condition, corresponding to the deterioration in the medical condition of the virtual patient. Negative affect of participants in the dynamic condition increased at a higher rate than for participants in the static condition. The virtual human animations elicited a stronger response in negative emotions such as anguish, fear, and anger as the virtual patient’s medical condition worsened.

Maternal reactions to two-dimensional compared to three-dimensional foetal ultrasonography.

Our objective was to quantitatively compare maternal reactions to viewing a three-dimensional (3D) ultrasound image of the foetal face to a traditional two-dimensional (2D) sonographic image. One hundred and twelve pregnant women were asked to evaluate their excitement, relief, amazement and satisfaction reactions to 2D and 3D ultrasound images of their foetus' face. A weighted kappa Cochran-Armitage trend test, Fisher exact test and generalised estimating equations were used to analyse the data obtained. 3D imaging was found to result in significantly more favourable reactions than 2D imaging of the foetal face. 3D imaging was significantly better than 2D in regard to the clearness of the image, feeling closer to the baby, experiencing amazement and recognising specific facial features. We hypothesised that 3D images might evoke more feelings of fear than 2D, but our analysis found there were no significant differences in this regard. 3D ultrasonography of the foetal face is well received by patients. It has been shown in this study to elicit stronger and more positive maternal reactions regarding excitement, amazement and satisfaction than experienced with 2D ultrasound.

Examination of body image issues and willingness to be body scanned.

This project examined body image issues using 3D body scanning technology. Twenty years of research on body image indicates that though thinness is culturally desirable, possessing an ideal body does not guarantee that women will be satisfied with their bodies. Furthermore, the disconnect continues to widen between the reality of a heavier American woman and the thinner western feminine ideal necessitating the continued need for body image research. This study included 240 female college students enrolled in a mid-sized university. Phase I included a questionnaire of several different measures of body image satisfaction/dissatisfaction, a description of the body scanner including a 3D image, as well as standard demographic questions and estimates of height and weight. Of the initial 240 participants, 85 women agreed to participate in the body scanning portion (Phase II) of the research project. A majority of the women chose an ideal figure thinner than their current figure. Self-esteem scores were significantly correlated with Eating Attitudes Test (EAT) scores. Neither level of body dissatisfaction nor self-esteem scores were significantly associated with willingness to be body scanned, despite the fact that body scanning involves significant body exposure and that the resulting 3D image is highly realistic. Due to the novelty of body scanning technology and its application to body image research, these findings represent an innovative contribution to the field.

Prenatal three-dimensional ultrasound: perception of sonographers, sonologists and undergraduate students.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the perception of non-pregnant sonographers, sonologists and undergraduate students on the use of three-dimensional (3D) ultrasound technology in fetal medicine. METHODS: This was a study of two groups of non-pregnant subjects. Group I included 520 (305 female, 215 male) medical professionals who completed a questionnaire after attending a lecture on 3D imaging. Factors such as gender, career and having children were analyzed with respect to the attendee's responses about use of 3D ultrasound for medical purposes and for reassurance. Group II included 137 (75 female, 60 male, two unknown) undergraduate students from bioengineering, psychology and physiology classes who completed a questionnaire after attending a brief presentation on two-dimensional and 3D fetal imaging. Factors such as gender and area of educational interest were analyzed with respect to the students' responses about the use of 3D ultrasound for medical purposes and for parental-fetal attachment. RESULTS: In Group I, 63% said that they would like to have a 3D ultrasound examination in the future, while 14% said that they would not. Common reasons given for wanting a 3D ultrasound exam in the future were for medical purposes (39%) or reassurance (18%). The main differences perceived between two-dimensional (2D) and 3D ultrasound were medical advantages (65%) and parental reassurance (28%). 62.4% of Group I thought 3D technology should be in wide use in obstetric ultrasound and 73.6% thought that 3D ultrasound would reassure parents carrying normal fetuses. Gender, age and career did not have a significant influence on perception of 3D ultrasound. In Group II, the majority (91%) said they could see a remarkable difference between 2D and 3D ultrasound. 83% responded that they would like to have a 3D ultrasound examination of their own baby in the future for the following reasons: 34% for the detailed picture, 31% for increased abnormality detection, 13% for reassurance or curiosity; 8% thought it would be unnecessary or a negative experience. Concerning parental-fetal attachment, 72% thought 3D ultrasound would have a positive effect. The majority of Group II (93%) thought 3D ultrasound would be valuable and 56% thought 3D ultrasound would assist in diagnosing fetal abnormalities. There was no significant relationship between gender, age or area of interest and the perception of 3D ultrasound. CONCLUSIONS: Responses by sonographers and physicians suggest that 3D ultrasound will have a role in the future for medical indications and in reassuring patients carrying normal fetuses. Our results also suggest that undergraduate students believe that 3D ultrasound will be a valuable technique in obstetrics and that it will have a positive effect on parental-fetal attachment.

Two-dimensional vs. two- plus four-dimensional ultrasound in pregnancy and the effect on maternal emotional status: a randomized study.

OBJECTIVE: To assess whether the addition of four-dimensional (4D) ultrasound to a conventional two-dimensional (2D) scan in the second/third trimester of pregnancy facilitates maternal recognition of specific fetal structures and movements and causes an emotional impact, as subjectively perceived by the woman. METHODS: Fifty-two women were randomly assigned to 2D ultrasound only (Group 1), while 48 women underwent 2D plus 4D ultrasound (Group 2). All the women completed two questionnaires. One questionnaire listed the fetal structures and movements that the women had recognized during the 2D scan or, for those women who also underwent a 4D scan, during the combination of the two; the other questionnaire required the women to score on an analog scale whether they had seen all the fetal parts and movements that they wished to see, whether they were satisfied with the scan, and if the scan had changed for the better their perception of the fetus. A subgroup of 46 women completed the Maternal Antenatal Attachment Scale (MAAS) designed to measure antenatal emotional attachment. RESULTS: Similar percentages of women in the two groups visualized fetal structures and movements, but facial expressions and hand-to-mouth movements were twice as likely to be seen with 4D ultrasound, although this difference did not reach statistical significance. The percentage of women who reported that they had seen all the fetal parts and movements that they wished to see, and of those who were satisfied overall with the scan, were similar in the two groups. There was no difference in the percentage of women who felt that the scan had changed for the better their perception of the fetus. Although the MAAS scores were similar in the two groups, there were more women with positive quality, intensity and global attachment among those who had undergone a 4D scan. Women who had seen all the fetal parts and movements they wished to see (whether with 2D or 2D plus 4D) answered more frequently that the scan had changed for the better their perception of the fetus. CONCLUSION: This randomized study indicates that the addition of 4D ultrasound does not change significantly the perception that women have of their baby nor their antenatal emotional attachment compared with conventional 2D ultrasound.

Intelligibility of speech in a virtual 3-D environment.

In a simulated air traffic control task, improvement in the detection of auditory warnings when using virtual 3-D audio depended on the spatial configuration of the sounds. Performance improved substantially when two of four sources were placed to the left and the remaining two were placed to the right of the participant. Surprisingly, little or no benefits were observed for configurations involving the elevation or transverse (front/back) dimensions of virtual space, suggesting that position on the interaural (left/right) axis is the crucial factor to consider in auditory display design. The relative importance of interaural spacing effects was corroborated in a second, free-field (real space) experiment. Two additional experiments showed that (a) positioning signals to the side of the listener is superior to placing them in front even when two sounds are presented in the same location, and (b) the optimal distance on the interaural axis varies with the amplitude of the sounds. These results are well predicted by the behavior of an ideal observer under the different display conditions. This suggests that guidelines for auditory display design that allow for effective perception of speech information can be developed from an analysis of the physical sound patterns.