An Updated Economic Assessment of Moxidectin Treatment Strategies for Onchocerciasis Elimination.

BACKGROUND: Concerns that annual mass administration of ivermectin, the predominant strategy for onchocerciasis control and elimination, may not lead to elimination of parasite transmission (EoT) in all endemic areas have increased interest in alternative treatment strategies. One such strategy is moxidectin. We performed an updated economic assessment of moxidectin- relative to ivermectin-based strategies. METHODS: We investigated annual and biannual community-directed treatment with ivermectin (aCDTI, bCDTI) and moxidectin (aCDTM, bCDTM) with minimal or enhanced coverage (65% or 80% of total population taking the drug, respectively) in intervention-naive areas with 30%, 50%, or 70% microfilarial baseline prevalence (representative of hypo-, meso-, and hyperendemic areas). We compared programmatic delivery costs for the number of treatments achieving 90% probability of EoT (EoT90), calculated with the individual-based stochastic transmission model EPIONCHO-IBM. We used the costs for 40 years of program delivery when EoT90 was not reached earlier. The delivery costs do not include drug costs. RESULTS: aCDTM and bCDTM achieved EoT90 with lower programmatic delivery costs than aCDTI with 1 exception: aCDTM with minimal coverage did not achieve EoT90 in hyperendemic areas within 40 years. With minimal coverage, bCDTI delivery costs as much or more than aCDTM and bCDTM. With enhanced coverage, programmatic delivery costs for aCDTM and bCDTM were lower than for aCDTI and bCDTI. CONCLUSIONS: Moxidectin-based strategies could accelerate progress toward EoT and reduce programmatic delivery costs compared with ivermectin-based strategies. The costs of moxidectin to national programs are needed to quantify whether delivery cost reductions will translate into overall program cost reduction.

Fight Against Antimicrobial Resistance: We Always Need New Antibacterials but for Right Bacteria.

Antimicrobial resistance in bacteria is frightening, especially resistance in Gram-negative Bacteria (GNB). In 2017, the World Health Organization (WHO) published a list of 12 bacteria that represent a threat to human health, and among these, a majority of GNB. Antibiotic resistance is a complex and relatively old phenomenon that is the consequence of several factors. The first factor is the vertiginous drop in research and development of new antibacterials. In fact, many companies simply stop this R&D activity. The finding is simple: there are enough antibiotics to treat the different types of infection that clinicians face. The second factor is the appearance and spread of resistant or even multidrug-resistant bacteria. For a long time, this situation remained rather confidential, almost anecdotal. It was not until the end of the 1980s that awareness emerged. It was the time of Vancomycin-Resistance Enterococci (VRE), and the threat of Vancomycin-Resistant MRSA (Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus). After this, there has been renewed interest but only in anti-Gram positive antibacterials. Today, the threat is GNB, and we have no new molecules with innovative mechanism of action to fight effectively against these bugs. However, the war against antimicrobial resistance is not lost. We must continue the fight, which requires a better knowledge of the mechanisms of action of anti-infectious agents and concomitantly the mechanisms of resistance of infectious agents.

Cost-effectiveness of antibiotic treatment strategies for community-acquired pneumonia: results from a cluster randomized cross-over trial.

BACKGROUND: To determine the cost-effectiveness of strategies of preferred antibiotic treatment with beta-lactam/macrolide combination or fluoroquinolone monotherapy compared to beta-lactam monotherapy. METHODS: Costs and effects were estimated using data from a cluster-randomized cross-over trial of antibiotic treatment strategies, primarily from the reduced third payer perspective (i.e. hospital admission costs). Cost-minimization analysis (CMA) and cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) were performed using linear mixed models. CMA results were expressed as difference in costs per patient. CEA results were expressed as incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICER) showing additional costs per prevented death. RESULTS: A total of 2,283 patients were included. Crude average costs within 90 days from the reduced third payer perspective were €4,294, €4,392, and €4,002 per patient for the beta-lactam monotherapy, beta-lactam/macrolide combination, and fluoroquinolone monotherapy strategy, respectively. CMA results were €106 (95% CI €-697 to €754) for the beta-lactam/macrolide combination strategy and €-278 (95%CI €-991 to €396) for the fluoroquinolone monotherapy strategy, both compared to the beta-lactam monotherapy strategy. The ICER was not statistically significantly different between the strategies. Other perspectives yielded similar results. CONCLUSIONS: There were no significant differences in cost-effectiveness of strategies of preferred antibiotic treatment of CAP on non-ICU wards with either beta-lactam monotherapy, beta-lactam/macrolide combination therapy, or fluoroquinolone monotherapy. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The trial was registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT01660204 , on May 2nd, 2012.

Cost-effectiveness of resistance-guided therapy for Mycoplasma genitalium in Australia.

The recommended first-line treatment for Mycoplasma genitalium infections is azithromycin. However, the prevalence of macrolide resistance for M. genitalium has increased to more than 50% worldwide. In 2013, Australia introduced a resistance-guided therapy (RGT) strategy to manage M. genitalium infections. This study assesses the cost-effectiveness of the RGT approach compared to no RGT (i.e., without macrolide resistance profile test) in women, men who have sex with men (MSM), and men who have sex with women (MSW) in Australia. We constructed dynamic transmission models of M. genitalium infections in women, MSM, and MSW in Australia, each with a population of 100,000. These models compared the costs and quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) gained between RGT and no RGT scenarios from a healthcare perspective over ten years. All costs are reported in 2022 Australian dollars (Australian $). In our model, RGT is cost saving in women and MSM, with the incremental net monetary benefit of $1.3 million and $17.9 million, respectively. In MSW, the RGT approach is not cost-effective, with an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of -$106.96 per QALY gained. RGT is cost saving compared to no RGT for M. genitalium infections in women and MSM, supporting its adoption as the national management strategy for these two population groups.

[Antibiotic consumption and its costs of purchase in Polish neonatology networks units]. / Zuzycie antybiotyków i koszty ich zakupu w oddzialach Polskiej sieci neonatologicznej.

AIM: The study presents the results of the analysis of antibiotic consumption and its direct costs in selected neonatal units. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Data were collected retrospectively (the year 2007) in five hospitals, during the pilot phase of the Polish Neonatal Network . Antibiotic consumption was assessed using the Defined Daily Dose (DDD). The costs were assessed as the costs of purchase of one DDD. RESULTS: The study included 11 922 children hospitalized in the period from 1.01 to 31.12.2007. In this group, 731 infants have birth weight < 1500 grams (from 2.2% to 64.2% in individual units, median--7.3%). The mean consumption of antibacterial drugs was 48.52 DDD/1 000 person-days (P-D) of stay among the entire study population (median--42,52), and varied from 23.13 to 85.82 DDD/1,000 P-D. However, this difference has not been statistically significant. The most commonly used group of antibiotics were beta-lactams--in four out of five units the percentage of its usage ranged from 48.71% to 74.67%. Next group were aminoglicosides--in one unit its usage reached 56.97% and in other ranged from 5.01% to 22.53%. Glycopeptides and macrolides were also used in every unit of the studied group. The usage of glycopeptides ranged from 1.7% to 10.81% and of macrolides from 1.32% to 15.71%. Different kinds of antibiotics were used occasionally. The differences of costs of purchase of one DDD between hospitals were greater and varied from 17,64 PLN/ DDD to 84,58 PLN/ DDD (average costs). A considerable range of costs index values was also noted for different groups of antibiotics. The costs of purchase of one DDD of beta-lactams varied from 19.54 PLN/ DDD to 68.35 PLN/ DDD; for aminoglicosides the cost varied from 4.61 PLN/ DDD to 122.9 PLN/ DDD, for glycopeptides--from 31.40 PLN/ DDD to 283.13 PLN/ DDD and in case of macrolides: from 12.05 PLN/ DDD to 90.77 PLN/ DDD. This differentiation of the cost of purchasing a single defined daily dose, taking into account the specific groups of antibiotics, did not have the characteristics of statistical significance. CONCLUSIONS: As expected, the antibiotic regimens in the studied wards were similar. This is due to a homogeneous population of hospitalized patients. However, the differences of costs of purchase of antibiotics observed in the study, indicate the considerable variety of the treatment patterns in Polish neonatology units and the need to develop and implement recommendations of effective pharmacotherapy for patients in intensive neonatal care units and the implementation of a unified model of infections surveillance.

Treatment costs associated with community-acquired pneumonia by community level of antimicrobial resistance.

INTRODUCTION: The aim is to quantify community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) treatment outcomes and costs from a managed care perspective by the level of macrolide resistance corresponding to the metropolitan statistical area (MSA) where patients lived. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A retrospective analysis was conducted using the i3 Magnify database (05/2000-05/2005) and the Prospective Resistant Organism Tracking and Epidemiology for the Ketolide Telithromycin (PROTEKT) database. Continuously enrolled patients aged 18 years and older residing in MSAs with PROTEKT data that had an outpatient CAP-related ICD-9 code and with one antibiotic pharmacy claim within 7 days were included. Patients were excluded for having a prior condition or drug treatment that could mimic CAP or precipitate infections, or for recent hospitalizations. Treatment costs by the level of resistance in the patient's MSA, by treatment outcome and by initial treatment were measured and adjusted for differences in baseline patient characteristics. RESULTS: The final study included 9446 CAP cases (average age of 47.6 years, 52.2% male). The majority (56.1%) resided in an MSA with macrolide resistance rates of < 25%. Treatment success rates were 82.5% and 80.5% for MSAs with resistance levels being < 25% and > or = 25%, respectively (P < 0.001). Treatment failure resulting in hospitalization was higher in resistance areas > or = 25% at 13.1% versus 8.0% in areas with resistance < 25% (P < 0.001). Average adjusted treatment costs were 33% higher for those treated in areas with resistance levels > or = 25% than for those treated in areas where resistance was < 25%. Treatment success was associated with average adjusted costs that were 58% less than those whose initial treatment failed, controlling for level resistance (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: This study observed an association between community-level macrolide resistance and treatment and economic outcomes. Treatment failure costs were higher for CAP patients treated in areas with macrolide resistance rates > or = 25% than for those treated in areas where resistance was < or = 25%.

Cost-effectiveness of oral gemifloxacin versus intravenous ceftriaxone followed by oral cefuroxime with/without a macrolide for the treatment of hospitalized patients with community-acquired pneumonia.

We studied the cost-effectiveness of oral gemifloxacin with intravenous ceftriaxone followed by oral cefuroxime with or without a macrolide to treat patients hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia. Data were prospectively collected as part of a randomized multicenter study. The costs evaluated included antimicrobial acquisition (1st level); plus preparation, dispensing, and administration costs, and treatment of antimicrobial-related adverse events and clinical failures (2nd level); plus per diem costs for hospital stay related to study drug administration (3rd level). At follow-up, clinical success was similar between gemifloxacin (76.9%)- and ceftriaxone (79.1%)-treated patients. The median 1st-level costs for gemifloxacin and ceftriaxone were $136 and $470 (P<0.001), respectively. For the 2nd level, these costs were $158 and $542 (P<0.001), and for the 3rd level, these were $5052 and $5789 (P=0.025), respectively. The median cost per expected success was $6568 for gemifloxacin and $7321 for ceftriaxone (P=0.29). Oral gemifloxacin is clinically effective and has an economic advantage over ceftriaxone, followed by oral cefuroxime with or without a macrolide.

Enumerating the economic cost of antimicrobial resistance per antibiotic consumed to inform the evaluation of interventions affecting their use.

Background: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses a colossal threat to global health and incurs high economic costs to society. Economic evaluations of antimicrobials and interventions such as diagnostics and vaccines that affect their consumption rarely include the costs of AMR, resulting in sub-optimal policy recommendations. We estimate the economic cost of AMR per antibiotic consumed, stratified by drug class and national income level. Methods: The model is comprised of three components: correlation coefficients between human antibiotic consumption and subsequent resistance; the economic costs of AMR for five key pathogens; and consumption data for antibiotic classes driving resistance in these organisms. These were used to calculate the economic cost of AMR per antibiotic consumed for different drug classes, using data from Thailand and the United States (US) to represent low/middle and high-income countries. Results: The correlation coefficients between consumption of antibiotics that drive resistance in S. aureus, E. coli, K. pneumoniae, A. baumanii, and P. aeruginosa and resistance rates were 0.37, 0.27, 0.35, 0.45, and 0.52, respectively. The total economic cost of AMR due to resistance in these five pathogens was $0.5 billion and $2.9 billion in Thailand and the US, respectively. The cost of AMR associated with the consumption of one standard unit (SU) of antibiotics ranged from $0.1 for macrolides to $0.7 for quinolones, cephalosporins and broad-spectrum penicillins in the Thai context. In the US context, the cost of AMR per SU of antibiotic consumed ranged from $0.1 for carbapenems to $0.6 for quinolones, cephalosporins and broad spectrum penicillins. Conclusion: The economic costs of AMR per antibiotic consumed were considerable, often exceeding their purchase cost. Differences between Thailand and the US were apparent, corresponding with variation in the overall burden of AMR and relative prevalence of different pathogens. Notwithstanding their limitations, use of these estimates in economic evaluations can make better-informed policy recommendations regarding interventions that affect antimicrobial consumption and those aimed specifically at reducing the burden of AMR.

Management of acute pharyngitis in adults: reliability of rapid streptococcal tests and clinical findings.

BACKGROUND: How to use clinical score, the rapid streptococcal antigen test (RSAT), and culture results is uncertain for efficient management of acute pharyngitis in adults. METHODS: This prospective cohort study included 372 adult patients with pharyngitis treated at a Swiss university-based primary care clinic. In eligible patients with 2 to 4 clinical symptoms and signs (temperature >or=38 degrees C, tonsillar exudate, tender cervical adenopathy, and no cough or rhinitis), we performed an RSAT and obtained a throat culture. We measured sensitivity and specificity of RSAT with culture as a gold standard and compared appropriate antibiotic use with cost per patient appropriately treated for the following 5 strategies: symptomatic treatment, systematic RSAT, selective RSAT, empirical antibiotic treatment, and systematic culture. RESULTS: RSAT had high sensitivity (91%) and specificity (95%) for the diagnosis of streptococcal pharyngitis. Systematic throat culture resulted in the highest antibiotic use, in 38% of patients with streptococcal pharyngitis. Systematic RSAT led to nearly optimal treatment (94%) and antibiotic prescription (37%), with minimal antibiotic overuse (3%) and underuse (3%). Empirical antibiotic treatment in patients with 3 or 4 clinical symptoms or signs resulted in a lower rate of appropriate therapy (59%) but higher rates of antibiotic use (60%), overuse (32%), and underuse (9%). Systematic RSAT was more cost-effective than strategies based on empirical treatment or culture: 15.00 dollars, 26.00 dollars, and 32.00 dollars, respectively, per patient appropriately treated. CONCLUSIONS: The RSAT we used is a valid test for diagnosis of pharyngitis in adults. A clinical approach combining this RSAT and clinical findings efficiently reduces inappropriate antibiotic prescription in adult patients with acute pharyngitis. Empirical therapy in patients with 3 or 4 clinical symptoms or signs results in antibiotic overuse.

Economic efficacy of anthelmintic treatments in dairy sheep naturally infected by gastrointestinal strongyles.

The aim of the present paper was to assess benefit of strategic anthelmintic treatments on milk production in six commercial dairy sheep farms, located in southern Italy, whose animals were naturally infected with gastrointestinal strongyles. On each farm, two similar groups were formed, one untreated control group and one treated group. In all the treated groups, the strategic anthelmintic schemes were based on: (i) only one treatment with moxidectin in the periparturient period (February, Farm No. 6), or; (ii) two treatments, i.e. the first with moxidectin performed in the periparturient period (February, Farms Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4) or in the postparturient period (April, Farm No. 5), and the second with netobimin at the mid/end of lactation (June, Farms Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5). Faecal egg count reduction (FECR) tests were performed on each farm in order to asses the anthelmintic efficacy of the drugs used. In addition, milk yield measurements for each animal fortnightly in each farm for the lactation period were performed. In terms of FECR, both moxidectin and netobimin were effective in all the 6 studied farms. Regarding milk production, overall in the 6 study farms the mean daily milk productions of the treated groups were higher than those of the control group. However, there were important differences between the 6 farms, i.e. the increase of milk production in the treated groups versus the control groups was as follows: +18.9% (Farm 1), +30.4% (Farm 2), +4.0% (Farm 3), +37.0% (Farm 4), +5.5% (Farm 5) and +40.8% (Farm 6). The results of the study showed that the economic efficacy of an anthelmintic treatment is not a cause-effect issue, but is a multifactorial issue which depends upon the quali-quantitative parasitological status of the animals, the pathogenesis of the species of parasites, the virulence of the strains of parasites, the local epidemiology, the timing of treatment, the breed of animal in terms of genetics and production types, nutrient supply.

Treatment strategies for sheep scab: An economic model of farmer behaviour.

Ovine psoroptic mange (sheep scab) is a debilitating and damaging condition caused by a hypersensitivity reaction to the faecal material of the parasitic mite Psoroptes ovis. Farmers incur costs from the use of prophylactic acaricides and, if their sheep become infected, they incur the costs of therapeutic treatment plus the economic loss from reduced stock growth, lower reproductive rate, wool loss and hide damage. The unwillingness of farmers to use routine prophylactic treatment has been cited as a primary cause of the growing incidence of sheep scab in the United Kingdom (UK) since the disease was deregulated in 1992. However, if farmers behave rationally from an economic perspective, the optimum strategy that they should adopt will depend on the risk of infection and the relative costs of prophylactic versus therapeutic treatment, plus potential losses. This calculation is also complicated by the fact that the risk of infection is increased if neighbours have scab and reduced if neighbours treat prophylactically. Hence, for any farmer, the risk of infection and optimum approach to treatment is also contingent on the behaviour of neighbours, particularly when common grazing is used. Here, the relative economic costs of different prophylactic treatment strategies are calculated for upland and lowland farmers and a game theory model is used to evaluate the relative costs for a farmer and his/her neighbour under different risk scenarios. The analysis shows that prophylaxis with organophosphate (OP) dipping is a cost effective strategy, but only for upland farmers where the risk of infection is high. In all other circumstances prophylaxis is not cost effective relative to reliance on reactive (therapeutic) treatment. Hence, farmers adopting a reactive treatment policy only, are behaving in an economically rational manner. Prophylaxis and cooperation only become economically rational if the risk of scab infection is considerably higher than the current national average, or the cost of treatment is lower. Should policy makers wish to reduce the national prevalence of scab, economic incentives such as subsidising the cost of acaricides or rigorously applied financial penalties, would be required to make prophylactic treatment economically appealing to individual farmers. However, such options incur their own infrastructure and implementation costs for central government.

Comparative Effectiveness of Beta-lactam Versus Macrolide Monotherapy in Children with Pneumonia Diagnosed in the Outpatient Setting.

BACKGROUND: Most children diagnosed with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) are treated in the outpatient setting. The objective of this study was to determine the comparative clinical effectiveness of beta-lactam monotherapy and macrolide monotherapy in this population. STUDY DESIGN: Children, 1-18 years old, with a clinical diagnosis of CAP at an outpatient practice affiliated (n = 71) with Geisinger Health System during January 1, 2008 to January 31, 2010 were eligible. The primary exposure was receipt of beta-lactam or macrolide monotherapy. The primary outcome was treatment failure defined as change in antibiotic prescription within 14 days of the initial pneumonia diagnosis. Propensity scores were used to determine the likelihood of receiving macrolide monotherapy. Treatment groups were matched 1:1, based on propensity score, age group and asthma status. Multivariable conditional logistic regression models estimated the association between macrolide monotherapy and treatment failures. RESULTS: Of 1999 children with CAP, 1164 were matched. In the matched cohorts, 24% of children had asthma. Patients who received macrolide monotherapy had no statistical difference in treatment failure regardless of age when compared with patients who received beta-lactam monotherapy. CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that children diagnosed with CAP in the outpatient setting and treated with beta-lactam or macrolide monotherapy have the same likelihood to fail treatment regardless of age.

Pertussis post-exposure prophylaxis among household contacts: a cost-utility analysis.

BACKGROUND: Recent pertussis outbreaks have prompted re-examination of post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) strategies, when immunization is not immediately protective. Chemoprophylaxis is recommended to household contacts; however there are concerns of clinical failure and significant adverse events, especially with erythromycin among infants who have the highest disease burden. Newer macrolides offer fewer side effects at higher drug costs. We sought to determine the cost-effectiveness of PEP strategies from the health care payer perspective. METHODS: A Markov model was constructed to examine 4 mutually exclusive strategies: erythromycin, azithromycin, clarithromycin, or no intervention, stratified by age group of contacts ("infant", "child", and "adult"). Transition probabilities, costs and quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) were derived from the literature. Chronic neurologic sequelae were modeled over a lifetime, with costs and QALYs discounted at 5%. Associated health outcomes and costs were compared, and incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICER) were calculated in 2012 Canadian dollars. Deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses were performed to evaluate the degree of uncertainty in the results. FINDINGS: Azithromycin offered the highest QALYs in all scenarios. While this was the dominant strategy among infants, it produced an ICER of $16,963 per QALY among children and $2,415 per QALY among adults. Total QALYs with azithromycin were 19.7 for a 5-kg infant, 19.4 for a 10-year-old child, and 18.8 for a 30-year-old adult. The costs of azithromycin PEP among infants, children and adults were $1,976, $132 and $90, respectively. While results were sensitive to changes in PEP effectiveness (11% to 87%), disease transmission (variable among age groups) and hospitalization costs ($379 to $59,644), the choice of strategy remained unchanged. INTERPRETATION: Pertussis PEP is a cost-effective strategy compared with no intervention and plays an important role in contact management, potentially in outbreak situations. From a healthcare payer perspective, azithromycin is the optimal strategy among all contact groups.

The potential impact of moxidectin on onchocerciasis elimination in Africa: an economic evaluation based on the Phase II clinical trial data.

BACKGROUND: Spurred by success in several foci, onchocerciasis control policy in Africa has shifted from morbidity control to elimination of infection. Clinical trials have demonstrated that moxidectin is substantially more efficacious than ivermectin in effecting sustained reductions in skin microfilarial load and, therefore, may accelerate progress towards elimination. We compare the potential cost-effectiveness of annual moxidectin with annual and biannual ivermectin treatment. METHODS: Data from the first clinical study of moxidectin were used to parameterise the onchocerciasis transmission model EPIONCHO to investigate, for different epidemiological and programmatic scenarios in African savannah settings, the number of years and in-country costs necessary to reach the operational thresholds for cessation of treatment, comparing annual and biannual ivermectin with annual moxidectin treatment. RESULTS: Annual moxidectin and biannual ivermectin treatment would achieve similar reductions in programme duration relative to annual ivermectin treatment. Unlike biannual ivermectin treatment, annual moxidectin treatment would not incur a considerable increase in programmatic costs and, therefore, would generate sizeable in-country cost savings (assuming the drug is donated). Furthermore, the impact of moxidectin, unlike ivermectin, was not substantively influenced by the timing of treatment relative to seasonal patterns of transmission. CONCLUSIONS: Moxidectin is a promising new drug for the control and elimination of onchocerciasis. It has high programmatic value particularly when resource limitation prevents a biannual treatment strategy, or optimal timing of treatment relative to peak transmission season is not feasible.

Oral antibiotics in the nineties: new drugs and new challenges in primary care.

The primary care physician is faced with a bewildering array of new oral antimicrobials to treat common infections. These agents promise to be extremely effective as replacements for time-honored drugs, as prophylaxis, and for the treatment of infections previously requiring prolonged intravenous therapy. The overuse of the newer macrolides, quinolones, and beta-lactam beta-lactamase inhibitors may prove to be ecologically and economically costly. It is feared that the selective pressure from these broad spectrum agents may burden society with an even greater problem of multiply resistant community-acquired pathogens. The specific therapeutic and economic advantages and disadvantages of each class should be considered and the decision to employ these agents should be highly individualized.

Antibiotics in the treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis.

The benefit of antimicrobial therapy for patients with an acute exacerbation of chronic bronchitis (AECB) remains controversial for two main reasons. First, the distal airways of patients with chronic bronchitis are persistently colonised, even during clinically stable periods, with the same bacteria that have been associated with AECB. Second, bacterial infection is only one of several causes of AECB. These factors have led to conflicting analyses on the role of bacterial agents and the response to antimicrobial therapy of patients with AECB. An episode of AECB is said to be present when a patient with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) experiences some combination of increased dyspnoea, increased sputum volume, increased sputum purulence and worsening lung function. While the average COPD patient experiences 2 - 4 episodes of AECB per year, some patients, particularly those with more severe airway obstruction, are more susceptible to these attacks than others. Bacterial agents appear to be particularly associated with AECB in patients with low lung function and those with frequent episodes accompanied by purulent sputum. Non-typeable Haemophilus influenzae, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Moraxella catarrhalis account for up to 50% of episodes of AECB. Gram-negative bacilli are more likely to occur in patients with more severe lung disease. Antibiotics have been used to ameliorate AECB, to prevent AECB and to prevent the long-term loss of lung function that characterises COPD. Numerous prevention trials have been conducted with fairly consistent results; antibiotics do not lessen the number of episodes of AECB but do reduce the number of days lost from work. Most antibiotic trials have studied the impact of treatment on episodes of AECB and results have been inconsistent, largely due to patient selection and end point definition. In patients with severe airway obstruction, especially in the presence of purulent sputum, antibiotic therapy significantly shortens the duration of symptoms and can be cost-effective. Over the past 50 years, virtually all classes of antimicrobial agents have been studied in AECB. Important considerations include penetration into respiratory secretions, spectrum of activity and antimicrobial resistance. These factors limit the usefulness of drugs such as amoxicillin, erythromycin and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Extended-spectrum oral cephalosporins, newer macrolides and doxycycline have demonstrated efficacy in clinical trials. Amoxicillin-clavulanate and flouoroquinolones should generally be reserved for patients with more severe disease. A number of investigational agents, including ketolides and newer quinolones, hold promise for treatment of AECB.

[Pharmacoeconomic analysis of community-acquired pneumonia treatment with telithromycin or clarithromycin]. / Analisis farmacoeconomico del tratamiento de la neumonia adquirida en la comunidad con telitromicina o claritromicina.

A pharmacoeconomic analysis was carried out comparing the efficacy of two treatment options for community-acquired pneumonia (CAP): telithromycin and clarithromycin. It was a retrospective analysis using a decision tree model. The efficacy of the two treatment options was estimated from a randomized, double-blind clinical trial, in which 800 mg/day oral telithromycin for 10 days was compared to 1000 mg/day oral clarithromycin for 10 days in patients with CAP (162 and 156 respectively). The use of resources was estimated based on the clinical trial and Spanish sources, and the unit costs from a Spanish health costs database. Costs were evaluated for the acquisition of antibiotic treatments, change of antibiotic due to therapeutic failure, hospital admissions, adverse reactions to treatment, primary care visits, tests and indirect costs (working days lost). The model was validated by a panel of Spanish clinical experts. As the clinical trial was designed to show equivalence, there were no significant differences in efficacy between the treatment options (clinical cure rate 88.3% and 88.5%, respectively), and a cost minimization analysis was performed. In the base case, the average cost of the disease per patient was 308.29 euros with telithromycin and 331.5 euros with clarithromycin (a difference of 23.21 euros). The results were stable in the susceptibility analysis, with differences favorable to telithromycin ranging between 5.50 and 45.45 euros. Telithromycin results in a cost savings of up to 45.45 euros per CAP patient compared to clarithromycin.

Antibiotic usage and costs in the community.

A prospective study was designed in order to determine to what extent antibiotics are used in treating community-acquired infections and their costs. Between February and July 2001 a total of 43,011 prescriptions from a representative sample of pharmacies in the city of Denizli (Turkey) were evaluated during the study period. Antibiotics accounted for 16.4 % of total prescriptions and 30.8% of the market value of drugs. Penicillins (49.7%), followed by cephalosporins (17.3%), macrolides (9.5%), and aminoglycosides (7.6%) were the most frequently prescribed antibiotics during the study period. The economic burden of antibiotic usage in the community is found higher than in developed countries. In order to reduce this cost the proper use of antibiotics is a matter of urgency

[Comparative cost of treatment of chronic complicated chlamydiosis of the urogenital system with some fluoroquinolones and macrolides]. / Porivnial'na vartist' likuvannia khronichnoho uskladnenoho khlamidiuzu sechostatevoï systemy deiakymy ftorkhinolonamy ta makrolidamy.

The article is devoted to the problem of the health care delivery to patients with chlamydiosis of the urogenital system. A comparative study was made of the cost of the course of treatment of chlamydiosis with different antibiotics. These included fluorochinolons cyprobai (Bayer), cyprinol (KRKA), ophloxin (Lechiva) and macrolids clacid (Sanofi-Synthelabo), phromilid (KRKA) and rovamycin (Rhone-Poulenc-Rorer). Economic expediency is proved of employment of cyprinol (KRKA) and phrolimid (KRKA), which fact is related to a high drugs clinical efficiency, quality of these drugs and optimum pricing policy carried on by the KRKA company on the market of Ukraine.

Macrolides vs. quinolones for community-acquired pneumonia: meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.

The relative efficacy, safety and ecological implications of macrolides vs. quinolones in the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) are debatable. We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials comparing any macrolide vs. any quinolone for the treatment of CAP among adult inpatients or outpatients, as monotherapy or both in combination with a beta-lactam. We did not limit inclusion by pneumonia severity, publication status, language or date of publication. The primary outcomes assessed were 30-day all-cause mortality and treatment failure. Two authors independently extracted the data. Fixed effect meta-analysis of risk ratios (RRs) with 95% confidence intervals was performed. Sixteen trials (4989 patients) fulfilling inclusion criteria were identified, mostly assessing outpatients with mild to moderate CAP. All-cause mortality was not significantly different for macrolides vs. quinolones, RR 1.03 (0.63-1.68, seven trials), with a low event rate (2%). Treatment failure was significantly lower with quinolones, RR 0.78 (0.67-0.91, 16 trials). The definition of failure used in the primary studies was not clearly representative of patients' benefit. Microbiological failure was lower with quinolones, RR 0.63 (0.49-0.81, 13 trials). All adverse events, adverse events requiring discontinuation and any premature antibiotic discontinuation were significantly more frequent with macrolides, mainly on account of gastrointestinal adverse events. Resistance development was not assessed in the trials. Randomized controlled trials show an advantage of quinolones in the treatment of CAP with regard to clinical cure without need for antibiotic modification at end of treatment and gastrointestinal adverse events. The clinical significance of this advantage is unclear.