D2 dopamine receptor-mediated mechanisms of dopaminergic system modulation in in vivo and in vitro experimental models of migraine.

The dopaminergic system is implicated in the pathophysiology of migraine. However, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. We explored the effects and mechanisms of dopaminergic system modulation in the in vivo and in vitro rat models of migraine. Dopaminergic agonist apomorphine, D2 receptor antagonists metoclopramide and haloperidol and 5-HT3 receptor antagonist ondansetron alone and together were tested in nitroglycerin-induced migraine model, in vivo. Likewise, the combinations of drugs were also tested on basal calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) release in vitro hemiskull preparations. Mechanical allodynia was tested by von Frey filaments. CGRP concentrations in trigeminovascular structures and in vitro superfusates and c-Fos levels in the brainstem were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Meningeal mast cells were evaluated with toluidine blue staining. Apomorphine further enhanced nitroglycerin-induced mechanical allodynia, brainstem c-fos expression, trigeminal ganglion and brainstem CGRP concentrations and meningeal mast cell degranulation, in vivo. Haloperidol completely antagonised all apomorphine-induced effects and also alleviated changes induced by nitroglycerin without apomorphine. Metoclopramide and ondansetron partially attenuated apomorphine- or nitroglycerin-induced effects. A combination of haloperidol and ondansetron decreased basal CGRP release, in vitro, whereas the other administrations were ineffective. Apomorphine-mediated dopaminergic activation exacerbated nitroglycerin-stimulated nociceptive reactions by further enhancing c-fos expression, CGRP release and mast cell degranulation in strategical structures associated with migraine pain. Metoclopramide partially attenuated the effects of apomorphine, most likely because it is also a 5-HT3 receptor antagonist. Haloperidol with pure D2 receptor antagonism feature appears to be more effective than metoclopramide in reducing migraine-related parameters in dopaminergic activation- and/or NTG-induced migraine-like conditions.

Pharmacological interventions for antipsychotic-related sialorrhea: a systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized trials.

Antipsychotic-induced sialorrhea carries a significant burden, but evidence-based treatment guidance is incomplete, warranting network meta-analysis (NMA) of pharmacological interventions for antipsychotic-related sialorrhea. PubMed Central/PsycInfo/Cochrane Central database/Clinicaltrials.gov/WHO-ICTRP and the Chinese Electronic Journal Database (Qikan.cqvip.com) were searched for published/unpublished RCTs of antipsychotic-induced sialorrhea (any definition) in adults, up to 06/12/2023. We assessed global/local inconsistencies, publication bias, risk of bias (RoB2), and confidence in the evidence, conducting subgroup/sensitivity analyses. Co-primary efficacy outcomes were changes in saliva production (standardized mean difference/SMD) and study-defined response (risk ratios/RRs). The acceptability outcome was all-cause discontinuation (RR). Primary nodes were molecules; the mechanism of action (MoA) was secondary. Thirty-four RCTs entered a systematic review, 33 NMA (n = 1958). All interventions were for clozapine-induced sialorrhea in subjects with mental disorders. Regarding individual agents and response, metoclopramide (RR = 3.11, 95% C.I. = 1.39-6.98), cyproheptadine, (RR = 2.76, 95% C.I. = 2.00-3.82), sulpiride (RR = 2.49, 95% C.I. = 1.65-3.77), propantheline (RR = 2.39, 95% C.I. = 1.97-2.90), diphenhydramine (RR = 2.32, 95% C.I. = 1.88-2.86), benzhexol (RR = 2.32, 95% C.I. = 1.59-3.38), doxepin (RR = 2.30, 95% C.I. = 1.85-2.88), amisulpride (RR = 2.23, 95% C.I. = 1.30-3.81), chlorpheniramine (RR = 2.20, 95% C.I. = 1.67-2.89), amitriptyline (RR = 2.09, 95% C.I. = 1.34-3.26), atropine, (RR = 2.03, 95% C.I. = 1.22-3.38), and astemizole, (RR = 1.70, 95% C.I. = 1.28-2.26) outperformed placebo, but not glycopyrrolate or ipratropium. Across secondary nodes (k = 28, n = 1821), antimuscarinics (RR = 2.26, 95% C.I. = 1.91-2.68), benzamides (RR = 2.23, 95% C.I. = 1.75-3.10), TCAs (RR = 2.23, 95% C.I. = 1.83-2.72), and antihistamines (RR = 2.18, 95% C.I. = 1.83-2.59) outperformed placebo. In head-to-head comparisons, astemizole and ipratropium were outperformed by several interventions. All secondary nodes, except benzamides, outperformed the placebo on the continuous efficacy outcome. For nocturnal sialorrhea, neither benzamides nor atropine outperformed the placebo. Active interventions did not differ significantly from placebo regarding constipation or sleepiness/drowsiness. Low-confidence findings prompt caution in the interpretation of the results. Considering primary nodes' co-primary efficacy outcomes and head-to-head comparisons, efficacy for sialorrhea is most consistent for the following agents, decreasing from metoclopramide through cyproheptadine, sulpiride, propantheline, diphenhydramine, benzhexol, doxepin, amisulpride, chlorpheniramine, to amitriptyline, and atropine (the latter not for nocturnal sialorrhea). Shared decision-making with the patient should guide treatment decisions regarding clozapine-related sialorrhea.

Performance and Sensitivity of [99mTc]Tc-sestamibi Compared with Positron Emission Tomography Radiotracers to Measure P-glycoprotein Function in the Kidneys and Liver.

P-glycoprotein (P-gp, encoded in humans by the ABCB1 gene and in rodents by the Abcb1a/b genes) is a membrane transporter that can restrict the intestinal absorption and tissue distribution of many drugs and may also contribute to renal and hepatobiliary drug excretion. The aim of this study was to compare the performance and sensitivity of currently available radiolabeled P-gp substrates for positron emission tomography (PET) with the single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) radiotracer [99mTc]Tc-sestamibi for measuring the P-gp function in the kidneys and liver. Wild-type, heterozygous (Abcb1a/b(+/-)), and homozygous (Abcb1a/b(-/-)) Abcb1a/b knockout mice were used as models of different P-gp abundance in excretory organs. Animals underwent either dynamic PET scans after intravenous injection of [11C]N-desmethyl-loperamide, (R)-[11C]verapamil, or [11C]metoclopramide or consecutive static SPECT scans after intravenous injection of [99mTc]Tc-sestamibi. P-gp in the kidneys and liver of the mouse models was analyzed with immunofluorescence labeling and Western blotting. In the kidneys, Abcb1a/b() mice had intermediate P-gp abundance compared with wild-type and Abcb1a/b(-/-) mice. Among the four tested radiotracers, renal clearance of radioactivity (CLurine,kidney) was significantly reduced (-83%) in Abcb1a/b(-/-) mice only for [99mTc]Tc-sestamibi. Biliary clearance of radioactivity (CLbile,liver) was significantly reduced in Abcb1a/b(-/-) mice for [11C]N-desmethyl-loperamide (-47%), [11C]metoclopramide (-25%), and [99mTc]Tc-sestamibi (-79%). However, in Abcb1a/b(+/-) mice, CLbile,liver was significantly reduced (-47%) only for [99mTc]Tc-sestamibi. Among the tested radiotracers, [99mTc]Tc-sestamibi performed best in measuring the P-gp function in the kidneys and liver. Owing to its widespread clinical availability, [99mTc]Tc-sestamibi represents a promising probe substrate to assess systemic P-gp-mediated drug-drug interactions and to measure renal and hepatic P-gp function under different (patho-)physiological conditions.

The effectiveness of parenteral agents for pain reduction in patients with migraine presenting to emergency settings: A systematic review and network analysis.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the comparative effectiveness and safety of parenteral agents for pain reduction in patients with acute migraine. BACKGROUND: Parenteral agents have been shown to be effective in treating acute migraine pain; however, the comparative effectiveness of different approaches is unclear. METHODS: Nine electronic databases and gray literature sources were searched to identify randomized clinical trials assessing parenteral agents to treat acute migraine pain in emergency settings. Two independent reviewers completed study screening, data extraction, and Cochrane risk-of-bias assessment, with differences being resolved by adjudication. The protocol of the review was registered with the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO; CRD42018100096). RESULTS: A total of 97 unique studies were included, with most studies reporting a high or unclear risk of bias. Monotherapy, as well as combination therapy, successfully reduced pain scores prior to discharge. They also increased the proportion of patients reporting pain relief and being pain free. Across the pain outcomes assessed, combination therapy was one of the higher ranked approaches and provided robust improvements in pain outcomes, including lowering pain scores (mean difference -3.36, 95% confidence interval [CI] -4.64 to -2.08) and increasing the proportion of patients reporting pain relief (risk ratio [RR] 2.83, 95% CI 1.74-4.61). Neuroleptics and metoclopramide also ranked high in terms of the proportion of patients reporting pain relief (neuroleptics RR 2.76, 95% CI 2.12-3.60; metoclopramide RR 2.58, 95% CI 1.90-3.49) and being pain free before emergency department discharge (neuroleptics RR 4.8, 95% CI 3.61-6.49; metoclopramide RR 4.1, 95% CI 3.02-5.44). Most parenteral agents were associated with increased adverse events, particularly combination therapy and neuroleptics. CONCLUSIONS: Various parenteral agents were found to provide effective pain relief. Considering the consistent improvements across various outcomes, combination therapy, as well as monotherapy of either metoclopramide or neuroleptics are recommended as first-line options for managing acute migraine pain. There are risks of adverse events, especially akathisia, following treatment with these agents. We recommend that a shared decision-making model be considered to effectively identify the best treatment option based on the patient's needs.

The Management of Nausea and Vomiting in Pregnancy and Hyperemesis Gravidarum (Green-top Guideline No. 69).

An objective and validated index of nausea and vomiting such as the Pregnancy-Unique Quantification of Emesis (PUQE) and HyperEmesis Level Prediction (HELP) tools can be used to classify the severity of NVP and HG. [Grade C] Ketonuria is not an indicator of dehydration and should not be used to assess severity. [Grade A] There are safety and efficacy data for first line antiemetics such as anti (H1) histamines, phenothiazines and doxylamine/pyridoxine (Xonvea®) and they should be prescribed initially when required for NVP and HG (Appendix III). [Grade A] There is evidence that ondansetron is safe and effective. Its use as a second line antiemetic should not be discouraged if first line antiemetics are ineffective. Women can be reassured regarding a very small increase in the absolute risk of orofacial clefting with ondansetron use in the first trimester, which should be balanced with the risks of poorly managed HG. [Grade B] Metoclopramide is safe and effective and can be used alone or in combination with other antiemetics. [Grade B] Because of the risk of extrapyramidal effects metoclopramide should be used as second-line therapy. Intravenous doses should be administered by slow bolus injection over at least 3 minutes to help minimise these. [Grade C] Women should be asked about previous adverse reactions to antiemetic therapies. If adverse reactions occur, there should be prompt cessation of the medications. [GPP] Normal saline (0.9% NaCl) with additional potassium chloride in each bag, with administration guided by daily monitoring of electrolytes, is the most appropriate intravenous hydration. [Grade C] Combinations of different drugs should be used in women who do not respond to a single antiemetic. Suggested antiemetics for UK use are given in Appendix III. [GPP] Thiamine supplementation (either oral 100 mg tds or intravenous as part of vitamin B complex (Pabrinex®)) should be given to all women admitted with vomiting, or severely reduced dietary intake, especially before administration of dextrose or parenteral nutrition. [Grade D] All therapeutic measures should have been tried before considering termination of pregnancy. [Grade C].

Is enhanced recovery after surgery essential?

BACKGROUND: The enhanced recovery after surgery (ERAS) method is designed for the patient to recover quickly, have less pain and have a more comfortable period after the surgery; that includes preoperative, intra and postoperative processes. ERAS has been started to be applied in cesarean section surgeries as the patients need to recover quickly. In the literature, there is no study about the results of ERAS in cesarean section about pain scores and complications. OBJECTIVES: It is aimed to compare the results of cesarean section patients using the ERAS method completely in patients who have had cesarean section without meeting some of the postoperative conditions of the ERAS criteria. STUDY DESIGN: It is a prospective study designed as postoperative metoclopramide, enema and routine opioids in group 1, enema and metoclopramide in group 2, metoclopramide only in group 3 and nothing in group 4. Postoperative pain scoring was done by using visual analog scale (VAS). Analysis of variance tests and t tests were used for results. RESULTS: There was no difference between groups according to age, parity, and birth weight. As a result, although there was no difference between the groups in terms of discharge time and complications, the VAS score used in pain scoring was found to be significantly lower in group 3 compared to the other groups (p: 0.000). Only metoclopramide group (group 3) had lowest VAS score. CONCLUSION: It has been revealed that the ERAS procedure does not need to be so detailed in the postoperative period, and the addition of metoclopramide may be sufficient. Since pain can be a subjective factor, other randomized studies are needed in terms of other criteria.

Evaluation of pharmacokinetics of metoclopramide administered via subcutaneous bolus and intravenous constant rate infusion to adult horses.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the pharmacokinetics (PK) of metoclopramide administered via intravenous continuous rate infusion (IV CRI) and subcutaneous (SC) bolus and evaluate for gastrointestinal motility and adverse side effects. STUDY DESIGN: Experimental study; randomized, crossover design. ANIMALS: Six healthy adult horses. METHODS: Each horse received metoclopramide via IV CRI (0.04 mg/kg/h for 24 h) and SC bolus (0.08 mg/kg once), with ≥1 week washout period between. Plasma was analyzed by UPLC-MS/MS. Compartmental modeling was used to determine PK parameters for each treatment; nonparametric superposition was used to simulate multiple SC bolus regimens. Gastrointestinal motility and evidence of adverse effects were monitored. RESULTS: Tmax (h) for SC bolus was 0.583 ± 0.204 versus 17.3 ± 6.41 for IV CRI, while Cmax (ng/mL) was 27.7 ± 6.38 versus 43.6 ± 9.97, respectively. AUC (h × ng/mL) was calculated as 902 ± 189 for 24 h IV CRI versus 244 ± 37.4 simulated for 0.08 mg/kg SC bolus every 8 h. Simulations revealed similar exposure between groups with administration of 0.96 mg/kg/day SC bolus, divided into three, four, or six doses. SC bolus bioavailability was estimated as 110 ± 11.5%. No clear trends in motility alteration were identified. No adverse effects were noted. CONCLUSION: Repeated SC boluses of metoclopramide at 0.08 mg/kg would result in lower total drug exposure and Tmax than IV CRI administration but would be highly bioavailable. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Higher and/or more frequent SC bolus doses are needed to achieve a similar AUC to IV CRI. No adverse effects were noted; however, evaluation of alternative dosing strategies is warranted.

Addition of a metoclopramide constant rate infusion to prevent ptyalism, regurgitation and vomiting in brachycephalic dogs undergoing spinal surgery.

OBJECTIVE: To assess whether adding metoclopramide to a protocol of maropitant and pantoprazole would reduce incidence of ptyalism, vomiting and regurgitation in brachycephalic dogs undergoing thoracolumbar spinal surgery. STUDY DESIGN: Randomized blinded controlled trial. ANIMALS: A total of 43 brachycephalic dogs undergoing thoracolumbar spinal surgery. METHODS: In addition to a standardized anaesthetic regimen, dogs were randomized to be administered either a 2 mg kg-1 day-1 metoclopramide constant rate infusion (CRI) or a saline solution at an equivalent infusion rate, started after anaesthetic induction and discontinued 5 hours after tracheal extubation. The presence of vomiting, regurgitation and pytalism, and short form of the Glasgow Composite Pain Scale pain scores were assessed by a blinded observer hourly for 4 hours, starting 1 hour postextubation. RESULTS: Regurgitation occurred in six dogs postoperatively; three dogs were in the placebo group and three in the metoclopramide group. The odds ratio (OR) of regurgitation after surgery did not differ between groups [OR: 0.76, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.13-4.3, p = 0.76]. The odds of observing ptyalism at 3 and 4 hours was approximately 15 times less than 1 hour postoperatively (both OR: 15.4, 95% CI: 1.8-130.7, p = 0.012) and did not differ based on the addition of metoclopramide (OR: 0.73, 95% CI: 0.07-8.0, p = 0.79). The odds of observing pain did not change over time and did not differ based on the addition of metoclopramide (OR: 0.71, 95% CI: 0.12-4.2, p = 0.71). Vomiting did not occur during the study (0.0%, 95% CI: 0.0-8.2%). No adverse effects were observed during the study period in either group. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The addition of a metoclopramide CRI to maropitant and pantoprazole did not result in a significant reduction in ptyalism or regurgitation in brachycephalic dogs undergoing thoracolumbar spinal surgery.

A Case-Study of Metoclopramide Prescription Error : A Grim Reminder.

The integration of Computerized Provider Order Entry (CPOE) systems in hospitals has been instrumental in reducing medication errors and enhancing patient safety. This study examines the implications of a software oversight in a CPOE system : Metoclopramide had a concentrated formulation (100 mg) delisted (and then not manufactured) in 2014 due to safety concerns. Despite this, the CPOE system continued to accept prescriptions for this formulation because it was not removed from the medication library by the pharmacist. The objective of our study was to describe this specific prescription error related to an outdated the medication library of the CPOE. We analyzed all metoclopramide prescriptions from 2014, to 2023. Our findings showed that errors involving 100 mg or more dosages were relatively rare, at 2.98 per 1000 prescriptions (34 errors in 11,372 prescriptions). Notably, 47.1% of these errors occurred during on-call shifts, and 68% of these errors led to actual administration. These errors correlated with periods of higher nurse workload. The findings advocate for the integration of dedicated pharmacists into ICU teams to minimize medication errors and enhance patient outcomes, and a proactive medication management in healthcare.

Formulation of Metoclopramide Hydrochloride-Loaded Lipid Carriers by QbD Approach for Combating Nausea: Safety and Bioavailability Evaluation in New Zealand Rabbit.

The focus of the research was to overcome the limitations of metoclopramide (MTC) when administered intranasally. The aim was to improve its bioavailability, increase patient compliance, and prolong its residence time in the nasal cavity. MTC-loaded liposomes were prepared by applying the film hydration method. A study was conducted to determine how formulation variables affected encapsulation efficiency (EE %), mean particle size (MPS), and zeta potential (ZP). The MTC-liposomes were further loaded into the in situ gel (gellan gum) for longer residence times following intranasal administration. pH, gelling time, and in vitro release tests were conducted on the formulations produced. In vivo performance of the MTC-loaded in situ gels was appraised based on disparate parameters such as plasma peak concentration, plasma peak time, and elimination coefficient compared to intravenous administration. When the optimal liposome formulation contained 1.98% of SPC, 0.081% of cholesterol, 97.84% of chloroform, and 0.1% of MTC, the EE of MTC was 83.21%, PS was 107.3 nm. After 5 h, more than 80% of the drug was released from MTC-loaded liposome incorporated into gellan gum in situ gel formulation (Lip-GG), which exhibited improved absorption and higher bioavailability compared to MTC loaded into gellan gum in situ gel (MTC-GG). Acceptable cell viability was also achieved. It was found out that MTC-loaded liposomal in situ gel formulations administered through the nasal route could be a better choice than other options due to its ease of administration, accurate dosing, and higher bioavailability in comparison with MTC-GG.

Gastroparesis in pregnancy.

Gastroparesis is a functional gastrointestinal disorder that more commonly affects women, with most cases being diagnosed during childbearing age. However, there is a paucity of data and guidelines to specifically highlight the epidemiology, disease course, maternal and fetal impact, and the management of existing gastroparesis during pregnancy. Apart from metoclopramide, there is no approved therapy specifically indicated for gastroparesis. More importantly, pregnant and breastfeeding women are excluded from clinical trials evaluating pharmacologic agents in the management of gastroparesis. This poses a real challenge to healthcare providers in counseling and managing patients with gastroparesis. In this systematic review, we summarize the current available literature and the knowledge gaps in the impact of pregnancy on gastroparesis and vice versa. We also highlight the efficacy and safety profiles of available pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic therapies in the management of patients with gastroparesis, with emphasis on judicious use of dietary approaches that are deemed relatively safe during pregnancy.

Medication changes implemented during medication reviews and factors related to deprescribing: Posthoc analyses of a randomized clinical trial in geriatric outpatients with polypharmacy.

AIMS: To provide posthoc analyses of a clinical trial that reported beneficial effects of medication reviews on health-related quality of life. Specifically, to describe the medication changes with a focus on deprescribing and to explore patient- and medication-related factors that may identify patients most likely to benefit from medication reviews. METHODS: Posthoc analyses of data from a pragmatic, nonblinded, randomized clinical trial investigating a medication review intervention (NCT03911934) in 408 geriatric outpatients treated with ≥9 medicines. RESULTS: In the medication review group (n = 196), 26% of the medicines prescribed at baseline were discontinued with 82% still being discontinued after 13 months. The most common reason for discontinuation was lack of indication (72% of discontinuations). The medicines most often discontinued in the medication review group compared with usual care included: metoclopramide (11/15 = 73% discontinued vs. 1/12 = 8% in usual care), acetylsalicylic acid (20/48 = 42% vs. 2/47 = 4%), simvastatin (18/48 = 38% vs. 2/58 = 3%), zopiclone (23/59 = 39% vs. 4/54 = 7%), quinine (9/14 = 64% vs. 6/16 = 38%), citalopram (4/18 = 22% vs. 0/20 = 0%) and tramadol (18/37 = 49% vs. 8/30 = 27%). Factors associated with number of deprescribed medicines included: number of prescribed medicines, Drug Burden Index, patient motivation for medicine changes, and prescriptions of metoclopramide, iron preparations, antidepressants other than selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, or drugs for urinary incontinence. CONCLUSION: Physician-led medication reviews resulted in persistent deprescribing of medicines in older polypharmacy patients treated with ≥9 medicines. Motivation for having their medicine changed, treatment with more medicines, and a higher burden of sedative and anticholinergic medicines characterized the patients most likely to benefit from physician-led medication reviews.

The efficacy and safety of metoclopramide in relieving acute migraine attacks compared with other anti-migraine drugs: a systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.

BACKGROUND: Many drugs are prescribed in relieving acute migraine attacks, we aim to compare metoclopramide with other antimigraine drugs. METHODS: We searched online databases like PubMed, Cochrane Library, Scopus, and Web of Science till June 2022 for RCTs that compared metoclopramide alone with placebo or active drugs. The main outcomes were the mean change in headache score and complete headache relief. The secondary outcomes were the rescue medications need, side effects, nausea and recurrence rate. We qualitatively reviewed the outcomes. Then, we performed the network meta-analyses (NMAs) when it was possible. which were done by the Frequentist method using the MetaInsight online software. RESULTS: Sixteen studies were included with a total of 1934 patients: 826 received metoclopramide, 302 received placebo, and 806 received other active drugs. Metoclopramide was effective in reducing headache outcomes even for 24 h. The intravenous route was the most chosen route in the included studies and showed significant positive results regarding headache outcomes; however, the best route whether intramuscular, intravenous, or suppository was not compared in the previous studies. Also, both 10 and 20 mg doses of metoclopramide were effective in improving headache outcomes; however, there was no direct comparison between both doses and the 10 mg dose was the most frequently used dosage. In NMA of headache change after 30 min or 1 h, metoclopramide effect came after granisetron, ketorolac, chlorpromazine, and Dexketoprofen trometamol. Only granisetron's effect was significantly higher than metoclopramide's effect which was only significantly higher than placebo and sumatriptan. In headache-free symptoms, only prochlorperazine was non-significantly higher than metoclopramide which was higher than other medications and showed significantly higher effects only with placebo. In rescue medication, metoclopramide's effect was only non-significantly lower than prochlorperazine and chlorpromazine while its effect was higher than other drugs and showed higher significant effects only than placebo and valproate. In the recurrence rate, studies showed no significant difference between metoclopramide and other drugs. Metoclopramide significantly decreased nausea more than the placebo. Regarding side effects, metoclopramide showed a lower incidence of mild side effects than pethidine and chlorpromazine and showed a higher incidence of mild side effects than placebo, dexamethasone, and ketorolac. The reported extrapyramidal symptoms with metoclopramide were dystonia or akathisia. CONCLUSION: A dose of 10 mg IV Metoclopramide was effective in relieving migraine attacks with minimal side effects. Compared to other active drugs, it only showed a lower significant effect compared with granisetron regarding headache change while it showed significantly higher effects only with placebo in both rescue medication needs and headache-free symptoms and valproate in only rescue medication need. Also, it significantly decreased headache scores more than placebo and sumatriptan. However, more studies are needed to support our results.

Prokinetics for the treatment of functional dyspepsia: an updated systematic review and network meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Since the previous network meta-analysis assessing the efficacy of prokinetics for functional dyspepsia (FD), there have been a number of new studies and cinitapride is a new prokinetic agent for FD. This updated meta-analysis aimed to explore the efficacy and safety of prokinetics for FD. METHODS: An updated study search in Pubmed, EMBASE, Cochrane Library and Web of Science was conducted in literatures published from July 2015 to March 2023. Randomized controlled trials investigating the use of prokinetics in adult FD patients were included. The primary outcome was the total efficacy rate and the secondary outcome was adverse events. A Bayesian network meta-analysis was performed using R software. RESULTS: A total of 28 studies were included. Network meta-analysis showed that metoclopramide had a higher total efficacy rate than mosapride (OR: 3.53, 95%CI: 1.70-7.47), domperidone (OR: 2.29, 95%CI: 1.16-4.63), itopride(OR: 2.77, 95%CI: 1.41-5.59), acotiamide(OR: 2.63, OR: 1.33-5.36), and placebo(OR: 5.68, 95%CI: 2.98-11.10), however similar to cinitapride (OR: 1.62, 95%CI: 0.75-3.53). Cinitapride had a higher total efficacy rate than mosapride (OR: 2.18, 95%CI: 1.16-4.14) and placebo (OR: 3.52, 95%CI: 2.01-6.24). Cinitapride had lower risk of total adverse events than domperidone. There was no difference in the risk of drug-related adverse events between the prokinetics. CONCLUSIONS: Metoclopramide and cinitapride may have a better efficacy than other prokinetics in the treatment of FD, and cinitapride may have a lower risk of total adverse events. Further studies using uniform definitions or validated tools to measure the total efficacy rate are needed.

Pheochromocytoma crisis with refractory Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS), Takotsubo syndrome, emergency adrenalectomy, and need for Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation (ECMO) in a previously undiagnosed and asymptomatic patient, due to the use of metoclopramide.

BACKGROUND: Pheochromocytoma (PCC) crisis is a rare life-threatening endocrine emergency. The diagnosis and treatment of PCC crisis, with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) as the first manifestation, is highly challenging, and traditional PCC management strategies are no longer suitable for these patients. CASE PRESENTATION: A 46-year-old female patient was admitted to the Intensive Care Unit (ICU) following sudden-onset acute respiratory distress and subsequent initiation of mechanical ventilation via endotracheal intubation. She was initially suspected of having a PCC crisis through the bedside critical care ultrasonic examination protocol. The computed tomography examination revealed a left adrenal neoplasm of 6.5cm × 5.9cm. The plasma-free metanephrine level was 100 times higher than the reference value. These findings were compatible with her PCC diagnosis. Alpha-blockers and fluid intake were started immediately. The endotracheal intubation was removed on the 11th day after admission to the ICU. The patient progressed to severe ARDS again, and invasive ventilation and continuous renal replacement therapy were needed. Despite aggressive therapy, her condition deteriorated. Therefore, she underwent veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (VA-ECMO)-assisted emergency adrenalectomy after multidisciplinary discussion. Postoperatively, the patient was supported by VA-ECMO for 7days. She was discharged from the hospital on day 30 after tumor resection. CONCLUSIONS: This case highlighted the challenges in diagnosing and managing ARDS associated with PCC crisis. The traditional preoperative preparation protocol and optimal operation timing for patients with PCC are not suitable for patients with PCC crisis. Patients with life-threatening PCC crisis may benefit from early tumor removal, and VA-ECMO could maintain hemodynamic stability during and after surgery.

Effects of ondansetron, metoclopramide and granisetron on perioperative nausea and vomiting in patients undergone bariatric surgery: a randomized clinical trial.

INTRODUCTION: Post-operative nausea and vomiting (PONV) is a common problem after sleeve gastrectomy. In recent years, following the increase in the number of such operations, special attention has been paid to preventing PONV. Additionally, several prophylaxis methods have been developed, including enhanced recovery after surgery (ERAS) and preventive antiemetics. Nevertheless, PONV has not been completely eliminated, and the clinicians are trying to reduce the incidence of PONV yet. METHODS: After successful ERAS implementation, patients were divided into five groups, including control and experimental groups. Metoclopramide (MA), ondansetron (OA), granisetron (GA), and a combination of metoclopramide and ondansetron (MO) were used as antiemetics for each group. The frequency of PONV during the first and second days of admission was recorded using a subjective PONV scale. RESULTS: A total of 130 patients were enrolled in this study. The MO group showed a lower incidence of PONV (46.1%) compared to the control group (53.8%) and other groups. Furthermore, the MO group did not require rescue antiemetics, however, one-third of control cases used rescue antiemetics (0 vs. 34%). CONCLUSION: Using the combination of metoclopramide and ondansetron is recommended as the antiemetic regimen for the reduction of PONV after sleeve gastrectomy. This combination is more helpful when implemented alongside ERAS protocols.

Erythromycin prior to endoscopy for acute upper gastrointestinal haemorrhage.

BACKGROUND: Upper endoscopy is the definitive treatment for upper gastrointestinal haemorrhage (UGIH). However, up to 13% of people who undergo upper endoscopy will have incomplete visualisation of the gastric mucosa at presentation. Erythromycin acts as a motilin receptor agonist in the upper gastrointestinal (GI) tract and increases gastric emptying, which may lead to better quality of visualisation and improved treatment effectiveness. However, there is uncertainty about the benefits and harms of erythromycin in UGIH. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the benefits and harms of erythromycin before endoscopy in adults with acute upper gastrointestinal haemorrhage, compared with any other treatment or no treatment/placebo. SEARCH METHODS: We used standard, extensive Cochrane search methods. The latest search date was 15 October 2021. SELECTION CRITERIA: We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) that investigated erythromycin before endoscopy compared to any other treatment or no treatment/placebo before endoscopy in adults with acute UGIH. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: We used standard Cochrane methods. Our primary outcomes were 1. UGIH-related mortality and 2. serious adverse events. Our secondary outcomes were 1. all-cause mortality, 2. visualisation of gastric mucosa, 3. non-serious adverse events, 4. rebleeding, 5. blood transfusion, and 5. rescue invasive intervention. We used GRADE criteria to assess the certainty of the evidence for each outcome.  MAIN RESULTS: We included 11 RCTs with 878 participants. The mean age ranged from 53.13 years to 64.5 years, and most participants were men (72.3%). One RCT included only non-variceal haemorrhage, one included only variceal haemorrhage, and eight included both aetiologies. We defined short-term outcomes as those occurring within one week of initial endoscopy. Erythromycin versus placebo Three RCTs (255 participants) compared erythromycin with placebo. There were no UGIH-related deaths. The evidence is very uncertain about the short-term effects of erythromycin compared with placebo on serious adverse events (risk difference (RD) -0.01, 95% confidence interval (CI) -0.04 to 0.02; 3 studies, 255 participants; very low certainty), all-cause mortality (RD 0.00, 95% CI -0.03 to 0.03; 3 studies, 255 participants; very low certainty), non-serious adverse events (RD 0.01, 95% CI -0.03 to 0.05; 3 studies, 255 participants; very low certainty), and rebleeding (risk ratio (RR) 0.63, 95% CI 0.13 to 2.90; 2 studies, 195 participants; very low certainty). Erythromycin may improve gastric mucosa visualisation (mean difference (MD) 3.63 points on 16-point ordinal scale, 95% CI 2.20 to 5.05; higher MD means better visualisation; 2 studies, 195 participants; low certainty). Erythromycin may also result in a slight reduction in blood transfusion (MD -0.44 standard units of blood, 95% CI -0.86 to -0.01; 3 studies, 255 participants; low certainty). Erythromycin plus nasogastric tube lavage versus no intervention/placebo plus nasogastric tube lavage Six RCTs (408 participants) compared erythromycin plus nasogastric tube lavage with no intervention/placebo plus nasogastric tube lavage. There were no UGIH-related deaths and no serious adverse events. The evidence is very uncertain about the short-term effects of erythromycin plus nasogastric tube lavage compared with no intervention/placebo plus nasogastric tube lavage on all-cause mortality (RD -0.02, 95% CI -0.08 to 0.03; 3 studies, 238 participants; very low certainty), visualisation of the gastric mucosa (standardised mean difference (SMD) 0.48 points on 10-point ordinal scale, 95% CI 0.10 to 0.85; higher SMD means better visualisation; 3 studies, 170 participants; very low certainty), non-serious adverse events (RD 0.00, 95% CI -0.05 to 0.05; 6 studies, 408 participants; very low certainty), rebleeding (RR 1.13, 95% CI 0.63 to 2.02; 1 study, 169 participants; very low certainty), and blood transfusion (MD -1.85 standard units of blood, 95% CI -4.34 to 0.64; 3 studies, 180 participants; very low certainty). Erythromycin versus nasogastric tube lavage Four RCTs (287 participants) compared erythromycin with nasogastric tube lavage. There were no UGIH-related deaths and no serious adverse events. The evidence is very uncertain about the short-term effects of erythromycin compared with nasogastric tube lavage on all-cause mortality (RD 0.02, 95% CI -0.05 to 0.08; 3 studies, 213 participants; very low certainty), visualisation of the gastric mucosa (RR 1.19, 95% CI 0.79 to 1.79; 2 studies, 198 participants; very low certainty), non-serious adverse events (RD -0.10, 95% CI -0.34 to 0.13; 3 studies, 213 participants; very low certainty), rebleeding (RR 0.77, 95% CI 0.40 to 1.49; 1 study, 169 participants; very low certainty), and blood transfusion (median 2 standard units of blood, interquartile range 0 to 4 in both groups; 1 study, 169 participants; very low certainty). Erythromycin plus nasogastric tube lavage versus metoclopramide plus nasogastric tube lavage One RCT (30 participants) compared erythromycin plus nasogastric tube lavage with metoclopramide plus nasogastric tube lavage. The evidence is very uncertain about the effects of erythromycin plus nasogastric tube lavage on all the reported outcomes (serious adverse events, visualisation of gastric mucosa, non-serious adverse events, and blood transfusion). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: We are unsure if erythromycin before endoscopy in people with UGIH has any clinical benefits or harms. However, erythromycin compared with placebo may improve gastric mucosa visualisation and result in a slight reduction in blood transfusion.

Use of prokinetic agents in hospitalised adult patients: A scoping review.

BACKGROUND: Gastrointestinal motility is important for adequate uptake of fluids and nutrition but is often impaired in hospitalised patients. Prokinetic agents enhance gastrointestinal motility and are prescribed for many hospitalised patients. In this scoping review, we aimed to systematically describe the body of evidence on the use of prokinetic agents in hospitalised patients. We hypothesised, that the body of evidence would be limited and derive from heterogeneous populations. METHODS: We conducted this scoping review in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews statement. We searched Medline, Embase, Epistemonikos and the Cochrane Library for studies assessing the use of prokinetic agents on any indication and outcome in adult hospitalised patients. We used a modified version of the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) to assess the certainty of evidence. RESULTS: We included 102 studies with a total of 8830 patients. Eighty-six studies were clinical trials (84%), and 52 (60%) of these were conducted in the intensive care unit, with feeding intolerance as the main indication. In the non-intensive care setting the indications were wider; most studies assessed use of prokinetic agents before gastroscopy to improve visualisation. The most studied prokinetic agent was metoclopramide (49% of studies) followed by erythromycin (31%). In total 147 outcomes were assessed with only 67% of the included studies assessing patient-centred outcomes, and with gastric emptying as the most frequently reported outcome. Overall, the data provided no firm evidence on the balance between the desirable and undesirable effects of prokinetic agents. CONCLUSIONS: In this scoping review, we found that the studies addressing prokinetic agents in hospitalised adults had considerable variations in indications, drugs and outcomes assessed, and that the certainty of evidence was judged to be low to very low.

Comparison of efficacy and frequency of akathisia and dystonia between olanzapine, metoclopramide and prochlorperazine in ED headache patients.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To compare the efficacy and frequency of akathisia and dystonia between the dopamine antagonist headache medications olanzapine, metoclopramide and prochlorperazine. METHODS: This was a retrospective observational cohort study of patients presenting to a large urban level one trauma center between 2010 and 2018. Inclusion criteria was age ≥ 18 who presented to the emergency department with a chief complaint of headache who received either olanzapine, metoclopramide or prochlorperazine. The primary outcome was need for rescue medication. Secondary outcomes were receiving medication for either akathisia or dystonia. Logistic regression was used to identify differences between the three cohorts up to 72 h from initial presentation. RESULTS: There were 5643 patients who met inclusion criteria. Olanzapine was the most commonly used drug (n = 2994, 53%) followed by prochlorperazine (n = 2100, 37%) and metoclopramide (n = 549, 10%). After adjusting for age and gender, there were no differences in risk for receiving rescue therapy or developing akathisia or dystonia. CONCLUSION: During initial ED visit and up to 72 h after receiving olanzapine, metoclopramide or prochlorperazine, we found no difference in risk for requiring rescue medication or developing akathisia or dystonia.

Metoclopramide loaded buccal films for potential treatment of migraine symptoms: in vitro and in vivo study.

OBJECTIVE: Developing mucoadhesive buccal films loaded with metoclopramide for the treatment of migraine-associated vomiting. METHODS: Buccal films were prepared using the solvent casting method. Several tests were conducted, including measurement of film weight, thickness, drug content, moisture uptake, swelling index, and DSC analysis. The bioadhesion properties were also assessed. Furthermore, in vitro release profiles and in human bioavailability were studied. RESULTS: The developed films were transparent, homogeneous, and easy to remove. Film weight and thickness increased with higher drug content. The drug entrapment exceeded 90%. Film weight increased with moisture uptake, and DSC analysis indicated the absence of drug crystallinity. Bioadhesion properties and swelling index decreased with increasing drug content. In vitro release demonstrated that drug release depended on the drug-polymer ratio. The in vivo study showed significant improvements in Tmax (from 1.21 ± 0.33 to 0.50 ± 0.0) and Cmax (from 45.29 ± 14.66 to 63.27 ± 24.85) compared to conventional tablets. CONCLUSION: The prepared mucoadhesive buccal films exhibited the desired characteristics and demonstrated enhanced drug absorption, evidenced by the significantly reduced Tmax and increased Cmax compared to conventional tablets. The results indicate the successful achievement of the study objectives in selecting and designing an effective pharmaceutical dosage form. as cm2.