Microbiome analysis reveals Microcystis blooms endogenously seeded from benthos within wastewater maturation ponds.

Toxigenic Microcystis blooms periodically disrupt the stabilization ponds of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Dense proliferations of Microcystis cells within the surface waters (SWs) impede the water treatment process by reducing the treatment efficacy of the latent WWTP microbiome. Further, water quality is reduced when conventional treatment leads to Microcystis cell lysis and the release of intracellular microcystins into the water column. Recurrent seasonal Microcystis blooms cause significant financial burdens for the water industry and predicting their source is vital for bloom management strategies. We investigated the source of recurrent toxigenic Microcystis blooms at Australia's largest lagoon-based municipal WWTP in both sediment core (SC) and SW samples between 2018 and 2020. Bacterial community composition of the SC and SW samples according to 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing showed that Microcystis sp. was dominant within SW samples throughout the period and reached peak relative abundances (32%) during the summer. The same Microcystis Amplicon sequence variants were present within the SC and SW samples indicating a potential migratory population that transitions between the sediment water and SWs during bloom formation events. To investigate the potential of the sediment to act as a repository of viable Microcystis cells for recurrent bloom formation, a novel in-vitro bloom model was established featuring sediments and sterilized SW collected from the WWTP. Microcystin-producing Microcystis blooms were established through passive resuspension after 12 weeks of incubation. These results demonstrate the capacity of Microcystis to transition between the sediments and SWs in WWTPs, acting as a perennial inoculum for recurrent blooms.IMPORTANCECyanobacterial blooms are prevalent to wastewater treatment facilities owing to the stable, eutrophic conditions. Cyanobacterial proliferations can disrupt operational procedures through the blocking of filtration apparatus or altering the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) microbiome, reducing treatment efficiency. Conventional wastewater treatment often results in the lysis of cyanobacterial cells and the release of intracellular toxins which pose a health risk to end users. This research identifies a potential seeding source of recurrent toxigenic cyanobacterial blooms within wastewater treatment facilities. Our results demonstrate the capacity of Microcystis to transition between the sediments and surface waters (SWs) of wastewater treatment ponds enabling water utilities to develop adequate monitoring and management strategies. Further, we developed a novel model to demonstrate benthic recruitment of toxigenic Microcystis under laboratory conditions facilitating future research into the genetic mechanisms behind bloom development.

An assessment of a biosensor system for the quantification of microcystins in freshwater cyanobacterial blooms.

Microcystin-producing cyanobacterial blooms are a global issue threatening drinking water supplies and recreation on lakes and beaches. Direct measurement of microcystins is the only way to ensure waters have concentrations below guideline concentrations; however, analyzing water for microcystins takes several hours to days to obtain data. We tested LightDeck Diagnostics' bead beater cell lysis and two versions of the quantification system designed to give microcystin concentrations within 20 min and compared it to the standard freeze-thaw cycle lysis method and ELISA quantification. The bead beater lyser was only 30 % effective at extracting microcystins compared to freeze-thaw. When considering freeze-thaw samples analyzed in 2021, there was good agreement between ELISA and LightDeck version 2 (n = 152; R2 = 0.868), but the LightDeck slightly underestimated microcystins (slope of 0.862). However, we found poor relationships between LightDeck version 2 and ELISA in 2022 (n = 49, slopes 0.60 to 1.6; R2 < 0.6) and LightDeck version 1 (slope = 1.77 but also a high number of less than quantifiable concentrations). After the quantification issues are resolved, combining the LightDeck system with an already-proven rapid lysis method (such as microwaving) will allow beach managers and water treatment operators to make quicker, well-informed decisions.

Tracking Extensive Portfolio of Cyanotoxins in Five-Year Lake Survey and Identifying Indicator Metabolites of Cyanobacterial Taxa.

Cyanobacterial blooms require monitoring, as they pose a threat to ecosystems and human health, especially by the release of toxins. Along with widely reported microcystins, cyanobacteria coproduce other bioactive metabolites; however, information about their dynamics in surface waters is sparse. We investigated dynamics across full bloom successions throughout a five-year lake monitoring campaign (Greifensee, Switzerland) spanning 150 sampling dates. We conducted extensive suspect screening of cyanobacterial metabolites using the database CyanoMetDB. Across all 850 samples, 35 metabolites regularly co-occurred. Microcystins were present in 70% of samples, with [d-Asp3,(E)-Dhb7]MC-RR reaching concentrations of 70 ng/L. Anabaenopeptins, meanwhile, were detected in 95% of all samples with concentrations of Oscillamide Y up to 100-fold higher than microcystins. Based on LC-MS response and frequency, we identified indicator metabolites exclusively produced by one of three cyanobacteria isolated from the lake, these being [d-Asp3,(E)-Dhb7]MC-RR from Planktothrix sp. G2020, Microginin 761B from Microcystis sp. G2011, and Ferintoic acid B from Microcystis sp. G2020. These indicators showed distinct temporal trends and peaking seasons that reflect the variance in either the abundance of the producing cyanobacteria or their toxin production dynamics. Our approach demonstrates that selecting high LC-MS response and frequent and species-specific indicator metabolites can be advantageous for cyanobacterial monitoring.

Pubertal exposure to Microcystin-LR arrests spermatogonia proliferation by inducing DSB and inhibiting SIRT6 dependent DNA repair in vivo and in vitro.

The reproduction toxicity of pubertal exposure to Microcystin-LR (MC-LR) and the underlying mechanism needs to be further investigated. In the current study, pubertal male ICR mice were intraperitoneally injected with 2 µg/kg MC-LR for four weeks. Pubertal exposure to MC-LR decreased epididymal sperm concentration and blocked spermatogonia proliferation. In-vitro studies found MC-LR inhibited cell proliferation of GC-1 cells and arrested cell cycle in G2/M phase. Mechanistically, MC-LR exposure evoked excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) and induced DNA double-strand break in GC-1 cells. Besides, MC-LR inhibited DNA repair by reducing PolyADP-ribosylation (PARylation) activity of PARP1. Further study found MC-LR caused proteasomal degradation of SIRT6, a monoADP-ribosylation enzyme which is essential for PARP1 PARylation activity, due to destruction of SIRT6-USP10 interaction. Additionally, MG132 pretreatment alleviated MC-LR-induced SIRT6 degradation and promoted DNA repair, leading to the restoration of cell proliferation inhibition. Correspondingly, N-Acetylcysteine (NAC) pre-treatment mitigated the disturbed SIRT6-USP10 interaction and SIRT6 degradation, causing recovered DNA repair and subsequently restoration of cell proliferation inhibition in MC-LR treated GC-1 cells. Together, pubertal exposure to MC-LR induced spermatogonia cell cycle arrest and sperm count reduction by oxidative DNA damage and simultaneous SIRT6-mediated DNA repair failing. This study reports the effect of pubertal exposure to MC-LR on spermatogenesis and complex mechanism how MC-LR induces spermatogonia cell proliferation inhibition.

Characterization of NR1J1 Paralog Responses of Marine Mussels: Insights from Toxins and Natural Activators.

The pregnane X receptor (PXR) is a nuclear hormone receptor that plays a pivotal role in regulating gene expression in response to various ligands, particularly xenobiotics. In this context, the aim of this study was to shed light on the ligand affinity and functions of four NR1J1 paralogs identified in the marine mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis, employing a dual-luciferase reporter assay. To achieve this, the activation patterns of these paralogs in response to various toxins, including freshwater cyanotoxins (Anatoxin-a, Cylindrospermopsin, and Microcystin-LR, -RR, and -YR) and marine algal toxins (Nodularin, Saxitoxin, and Tetrodotoxin), alongside natural compounds (Saint John's Wort, Ursolic Acid, and 8-Methoxypsoralene) and microalgal extracts (Tetraselmis, Isochrysis, LEGE 95046, and LEGE 91351 extracts), were studied. The investigation revealed nuanced differences in paralog response patterns, highlighting the remarkable sensitivity of MgaNR1J1γ and MgaNR1J1δ paralogs to several toxins. In conclusion, this study sheds light on the intricate mechanisms of xenobiotic metabolism and detoxification, particularly focusing on the role of marine mussel NR1J1 in responding to a diverse array of compounds. Furthermore, comparative analysis with human PXR revealed potential species-specific adaptations in detoxification mechanisms, suggesting evolutionary implications. These findings deepen our understanding of PXR-mediated metabolism mechanisms, offering insights into environmental monitoring and evolutionary biology research.

Comprehensive strategies for microcystin degradation: A review of the physical, chemical, and biological methods and genetic engineering.

Addressing the threat of harmful cyanobacterial blooms (CyanoHABs) and their associated microcystins (MCs) is crucial for global drinking water safety. In this review, we comprehensively analyze and compares the physical, chemical, and biological methods and genetic engineering for MCs degradation in aquatic environments. Physical methods, such as UV treatments and photocatalytic reactions, have a high efficiency in breaking down MCs, with the potential for further enhancement in performance and reduction of hazardous byproducts. Chemical treatments using chlorine dioxide and potassium permanganate can reduce MC levels but require careful dosage management to avoid toxic by-products and protect aquatic ecosystems. Biological methods, including microbial degradation and phytoremediation techniques, show promise for the biodegradation of MCs, offering reduced environmental impact and increased sustainability. Genetic engineering, such as immobilization of microcystinase A (MlrA) in Escherichia coli and its expression in Synechocystis sp., has proven effective in decomposing MCs such as MC-LR. However, challenges related to specific environmental conditions such as temperature variations, pH levels, presence of other contaminants, nutrient availability, oxygen levels, and light exposure, as well as scalability of biological systems, necessitate further exploration. We provide a comprehensive evaluation of MCs degradation techniques, delving into their practicality, assessing the environmental impacts, and scrutinizing their efficiency to offer crucial insights into the multifaceted nature of these methods in various environmental contexts. The integration of various methodologies to enhance degradation efficiency is vital in the field of water safety, underscoring the need for ongoing innovation.

Effect of surfactant's charge properties on behavior, physiology, and biochemistry and the release of microcystins of Microcystis aeruginosa.

Surfactant pollution is escalatitheng in eutrophic waters, but the effect of surfactant charge properties on the physiological and biochemical properties of toxin-producing microalgae remains inadequately explored. To address this gap, this study explores the effects and mechanisms of three common surfactants-cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB, cationic), sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS, anionic), and Triton X-100 (nonionic)-found in surface waters, on the agglomeration behavior, physiological indicators, and Microcystin-LR (MC-LR) release of Microcystis aeruginosa (M. aeruginosa) by using UV-visible spectroscope, Malvern Zetasizer, fluorescence spectrometer, etc. Results suggest that charge properties significantly affect cyanobacterial aggregation and cellular metabolism. The CTAB-treated group demonstrates a ∼5.74 and ∼9.74 times higher aggregation effect compared to Triton X-100 and SDS (300 mg/L for 180 min) due to strong electrostatic attraction. Triton X-100 outperforms CTAB and SDS in polysaccharide extraction, attributed to its higher water solubility and lower critical micelle concentration. CTAB stimulates cyanobacteria to secrete proteins, xanthohumic acid, and humic acids to maintain normal physiological cells. Additionally, the results of SEM and ion content showed that CTAB damages the cell membrane, resulting in a ∼90% increase in the release of intracellular MC-LR without cell disintegration. Ionic analyses confirm that all three surfactants alter cell membrane permeability and disrupt ionic metabolic pathways in microalgae. This study highlights the relationship between the surface charge properties of typical surfactants and the dispersion/agglomeration behavior of cyanobacteria. It provides insights into the impact mechanism of exogenous surfactants on toxic algae production in eutrophic water bodies, offering theoretical references for managing surfactant pollution and treating algae blooms.

Analysis of factors affecting microbial degradation of cyanobacterial toxins based on theoretical calculations.

Cyanobacterial toxins are the most common algal toxins, which are highly toxic and can persist in the aquatic environment without easy degradation, posing risks to the ecosystem and human health that cannot be ignored. Although microbiological methods for the removal of cyanobacterial toxins from aqueous environments are highly efficient, their degradation efficiency is susceptible to many abiotic environmental factors. In this paper, Microcystin-LR (MC-LR) and its microbial degrading enzymes were selected to study the effects of common environmental factors (temperature (T), NO3-, NH4+, Cu2+, Zn2+) and their levels during microbial degradation of cyanobacterial toxins in aqueous environments by using molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulation, analytical factor design, and the combined toxicokinetics of TOPKAT (toxicity prediction). It was found that the addition of T, NO3- and Cu2+ to the aqueous environment promoted the microbial degradation of MC-LR, while the addition of NH4+ and Zn2+ inhibited the degradation; The level effect study showed that the microbial degradation of MC-LR was promoted by increasing levels of added T and NO3- in the aqueous environment, whereas it was inhibited and then promoted by increasing levels of NH4+, Cu2+ and Zn2+. In addition, the predicted toxicity of common Microcystins (MCs) showed that MC-LR, Microcystin-RR (MC-RR) and Microcystin-YR (MC-YR) were not carcinogenic, developmentally toxic, mutagenic or ocular irritants in humans. MC-LR and MC-RR are mild skin irritants and MC-YR is not a skin irritant. MC-YR has a higher chronic and acute toxicity in humans than MC-LR and MC-RR. Acute/chronic toxicity intensity for aquatic animals: MC-YR > MC-LR > MC-RR and for aquatic plants: MC-LR > MC-YR > MC-RR. This suggests that MC-YR also has a high environmental health risk. This paper provides theoretical support for optimizing the environmental conditions for microbial degradation of cyanobacterial toxins by studying the effects of common environmental factors and their level effects in the aquatic environment.

Evaluating the microcystin-LR-degrading potential of bacteria growing in extreme and polluted environments.

Inhabitants of extreme and polluted environments are attractive as candidates for environmental bioremediation. Bacteria growing in oil refinery effluents, tannery dumpsite soils, car wash effluents, salt pans and hot springs were screened for microcystin-LR biodegradation potentials. Using a colorimetric BIOLOG MT2 assay; Arthrobacter sp. B105, Arthrobacter junii, Plantibacter sp. PDD-56b-14, Acinetobacter sp. DUT-2, Salinivibrio sp. YH4, Bacillus sp., Bacillus thuringiensis and Lysinibacillus boronitolerans could grow in the presence of microcystin-LR at 1, 10 and 100 µg L-1. Most bacteria grew optimally at 10 µg L-1 microcystin-LR under alkaline pH (8 and 9). The ability of these bacteria to use MC-LR as a growth substrate depicts their ability to metabolize the toxin, which is equivalent to its degradation. Through PCR screening, these bacteria were shown to lack the mlr genes implying possible use of a unique microcystin-LR degradation pathway. The study highlights the wide environmental and taxonomic distribution of microcystin-LR degraders.

Self-Immolative Polythiophene for Sunlight Inactivation of Harmful Cyanobacteria.

Harmful cyanobacterial blooms and the released microcystins (MCs) caused serious environmental and public health concerns to drinking water safety. Photo-oxidation is an appealing treatment option and alternative to conventional flocculation and microbial antagonists, but the performances of current photosensitizers (either inorganic or organic) are unsatisfactory. Here, a polythiophene photosensitizer (PT10) with both high yield of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production (mainly 1O2, ΦΔ = 0.51, > 8 h continuous generation) and moderate photostability was used as a powerful algaecide to inhibit Microcystis aeruginosa. Due to the positive charge of PT10, the algal cells were quickly flocculated, followed by efficient inactivation in 4 h under white light irradiation (96.7%, 10 mW/cm2). Meanwhile, PT10 was self-immolated in about 6 h. Upon biosafety evaluation with adult zebrafish, the low toxicity of PT10 and the degradation products of PT10 and algae (early logarithmic growth stage) were confirmed. In addition, microcystin-LR (MC-LR), a toxic microcystin that will be released during the destruction of the algal cells, was also degraded. Therefore, PT10-based photoinactivation of M. aeruginosa featured both high performance and low secondary pollution. In real-world aquatic systems, PT10 was confirmed to be capable of sunlight-assisted inactivation of M. aeruginosa and prevent algal blooms, thus making it appealing for environmental remediation.

Acteoside from Conandron ramondioides Reduces Microcystin-LR Cytotoxicity by Inhibiting Intracellular Uptake Mediated by OATP1B3.

The hepatotoxin microcystin-LR is a strong inhibitor of serine/threonine protein phosphatase (PP) 1 and PP2A. The onset of its cytotoxicity depends on its selective uptake via the hepatocyte uptake transporters, organic anion transporting polypeptide (OATP) 1B1 and OATP1B3. Understanding and preventing the cytotoxicity of microcystin-LR is crucial to maintain human health. This chemoprevention study demonstrates that the herbal plant extract of iwajisha (20 µg/mL) reduced microcystin-LR cytotoxicity in OATP1B3-expressing cells by approximately six times. In addition, 20 µM acteoside, which is one of the major compounds in iwajisha, reduced microcystin-LR cytotoxicity by approximately 7.4 times. Acteoside could also reduce the cytotoxicity of other compounds, such as okadaic acid and nodularin, which are both substrates of OATP1B3 and inhibitors of PP1/PP2A. To investigate the mechanism by which the cytotoxicity of microcystin-LR is attenuated by acteosides, microcystin-LR and microcystin-LR-binding proteins in cells were examined after microcystin-LR and acteosides were co-exposed. Thus, acteoside noncompetitively inhibited microcystin-LR uptake by OATP1B3-expressing cells. Furthermore, acteoside inhibited the intracellular interaction of microcystin-LR with its binding protein(s), including the 22 kDa protein. Furthermore, using immunoblot analysis, acteoside induced the phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), which is one of the survival signaling molecules. These results suggest that acteoside reduces microcystin-LR cytotoxicity through several mechanisms, including the inhibition of microcystin-LR uptake via OATP1B3, and decreased interaction between microcystin-LR and its binding protein(s), and that ERK signaling activation contributes to the attenuation effect of acteoside against microcystin-LR cytotoxicity.

Metabolomics Applied to Cyanobacterial Toxins and Natural Products.

The biological and chemical diversity of Cyanobacteria is remarkable. These ancient prokaryotes are widespread in nature and can be found in virtually every habitat on Earth where there is light and water. They are producers of an array of secondary metabolites with important ecological roles, toxic effects, and biotechnological applications. The investigation of cyanobacterial metabolites has benefited from advances in analytical tools and bioinformatics that are employed in metabolomic analyses. In this chapter, we review selected articles highlighting the use of targeted and untargeted metabolomics in the analyses of secondary metabolites produced by cyanobacteria. Here, cyanobacterial secondary metabolites have been didactically divided into toxins and natural products according to their relevance to toxicological studies and drug discovery, respectively. This review illustrates how metabolomics has improved the chemical analysis of cyanobacteria in terms of speed, sensitivity, selectivity, and/or coverage, allowing for broader and more complex scientific questions.

Integrating regular and transcriptomic analyses reveal resistance mechanisms in Corbicula fluminea (Müller, 1774) in response to toxic Microcystis aeruginosa exposure.

The frequent occurrence of cyanobacterial blooms (CYBs) caused by toxic Microcystis aeruginosa poses a great threat to aquatic organisms. Although freshwater benthic bivalves have proven to be capable of uptake high levels of microcystins (MCs) due to their filter-feeding habits, there is a paucity of information concerning their systemic resistance mechanisms to MCs. In this study, the resistance mechanisms in Corbicula fluminea (O. F. Müller, 1774) in response to the exposure of toxic M. aeruginosa were explored through transcriptional analysis combined with histopathological and biochemical phenotypic analysis. Toxic M. aeruginosa exposure caused dose-dependent histological damage in the hepatopancreas. The conjugation reaction catalyzed by glutathione S-transferases was vulnerable to being activated by high concentrations of M. aeruginosa (10 ×105 cells mL-1). Additionally, reactive oxygen species scavenging processes mediated by superoxide dismutase and catalase were active in the initial stage of toxic M. aeruginosa exposure. The results of the integrated biomarker response index suggested that the biotransformation and antioxidant defense system in C. fluminea could be continuously activated after acute exposure to the high concentration of toxic M. aeruginosa. The eggNOG and GO analysis of the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) indicated that DEGs were significantly enriched in transporter activity, oxidant detoxification and response to oxidative stress categories, which were consistent with the alterations of biochemical indices. Besides, DEGs were significantly annotated in a few KEGG pathways involved in biotransformation (oxidation, cooxidation and conjugation) and immunoreaction (lysosome and phagosome responses), which could be responsible for the tolerance of C. fluminea to toxic M. aeruginosa. These findings improve our understanding of potential resistance mechanisms of freshwater bivalves to MCs.

Phosphorus level impacts luteolin effect on Microcystis aeruginosa growth and microcystin-pollution risk - Novel perspective from correlation between exopolymers substances fractions and microcystin-production/release.

Luteolin as a phytogenic algicide can inhibit the growth and microcystins (MCs) release of Microcystis, a dominant genus during cyanobacterial blooms, but how phosphorus (P) level impacts luteolin effect on its growth and MC-pollution risk is unclear. By employing Microcystis aeruginosa as test alga, this study addressed this concern and explored response mechanisms from novel insights of relationship between extracellular polysaccharide (ex-poly) and protein (ex-pro) contents and MC-production/release. At each P level (0.05-5 mg/L), rising luteolin dose more greatly inhibited Microcystis growth and MC-pollution risk, with growth inhibition ratio of around 10%-30%, 20%-50% and 40%-90% for 3, 6 and 12 mg/L luteolin, respectively, but almost increasingly enhanced cellular ability of MC-production/conservation and total and bound ex-poly/ex-pro production. Rising P level promoted Microcystis growth and intracellular/extracellular MCs content (IMC, EMC) in test system at each luteolin dose, thus higher P level weakened algicidal and MC-removal effects of luteolin, indicating that P-decrease was required for stronger application outcome of luteolin. Total and bound ex-poly/ex-pro amount were positively correlated with cellular MC-production/conservation ability, IMC and EMC, which constituted cooperative stress-defense of Microcystis at each P level. Besides, rising luteolin dose posed stronger algicidal effect by inactivating gene expression involving peroxidase synthesis (especially at P-limitation), photosynthesis and P acquisition, while rising P level alleviated algicidal and MC-pollution inhibition effects of luteolin by enhancing gene expression involving N acquisition and peroxidase synthesis. This study shed novel insights for P-dependent effect and mechanisms of luteolin on toxigenic Microcystis growth and MC-pollution control, which guided to mitigating toxigenic Microcystis-dominated cyanobacterial blooms in different P-level water areas.

Microcystin-LR induces lactate production disruption via altering the m6A modification in Sertoli cells.

We have previously reported the toxicity of microcystin-LR (MC-LR) to the male reproductive system, which results in functional changes in mouse testes. In this study, mice were orally exposed to MC-LR at 1, 7.5, 15, or 30 µg/L daily for 180 days. We found an increase in germ cell apoptosis in the seminiferous tubules and low-quality sperm in the epididymis. A decrease in lactate dehydrogenase A (Ldha) expression in testes through high-throughput sequencing was observed. We validated that MC-LR disrupted lactate production in Sertoli cells by suppressing the expression of Ldha. Further studies identified that methyltransferase 3 (Mettl3) catalysed N6-methyladenosine (m6A) methylation of Ldha mRNA. Mettl3 was downregulated in Sertoli cells following exposure to MC-LR, decreasing m6A levels of Ldha. The stability of Ldha mRNA decreased when m6A levels of Ldha were inhibited. In conclusion, these results showed that MC-LR inhibits the expression of Ldha in an m6A-dependent manner, which might result in the apoptosis of spermatogenic cells and a decline in sperm quality. Our work provides a new perspective to understanding MC-LR-induced male infertility.

PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway mediated-cell cycle dysregulation contribute to malignant proliferation of mouse spermatogonia induced by microcystin-leucine arginine.

Environmental cyanotoxin exposure may be a trigger of testicular cancer. Activation of PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway is the critical molecular event in testicular carcinogenesis. As a widespread cyanotoxin, microcystin-leucine arginine (MC-LR) is known to induce cell malignant transformation and tumorigenesis. However, the effects of MC-LR on the regulatory mechanism of PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway in seminoma, the most common testicular tumor, are unknown. In this study, mouse spermatogonia cell line (GC-1) and nude mice were used to investigate the effects and mechanisms of MC-LR on the malignant transformation of spermatogonia by nude mouse tumorigenesis assay, cell migration invasion assay, western blot, and cell cycle assay, and so forth. The results showed that, after continuous exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of MC-LR (20 nM) for 35 generations, the proliferation, migration, and invasion abilities of GC-1 cells were increased by 120%, 340%, and 370%, respectively. In nude mice, MC-LR-treated GC-1 cells formed tumors with significantly greater volume (0.998 ± 0.768 cm3 ) and weight (0.637 ± 0.406 g) than the control group (0.067 ± 0.039 cm3 ; 0.094 ± 0.087 g) (P < .05). Furthermore, PI3K inhibitor Wortmannin inhibited the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway and its downstream proteins (c-MYC, CDK4, CCND1, and MMP14) activated by MC-LR. Blocking PI3K alleviated MC-LR-induced cell cycle disorder and malignant proliferation, migration and invasive of GC-1 cells. Altogether, our findings suggest that MC-LR can induce malignant transformation of mouse spermatogonia, and the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway-mediated cell cycle dysregulation may be an important target for malignant proliferation. This study provides clues to further reveal the etiology and pathogenesis of seminoma.

Cyanotoxins, biosynthetic gene clusters, and factors modulating cyanotoxin biosynthesis.

Cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms (CHABs) are a global environmental concern that encompasses public health issues, water availability, and water quality owing to the production of various secondary metabolites (SMs), including cyanotoxins in freshwater, brackish water, and marine ecosystems. The frequency, extent, magnitude, and duration of CHABs are increasing globally. Cyanobacterial species traits and changing environmental conditions, including anthropogenic pressure, eutrophication, and global climate change, together allow cyanobacteria to thrive. The cyanotoxins include a diverse range of low molecular weight compounds with varying biochemical properties and modes of action. With the application of modern molecular biology techniques, many important aspects of cyanobacteria are being elucidated, including aspects of their diversity, gene-environment interactions, and genes that express cyanotoxins. The toxicological, environmental, and economic impacts of CHABs strongly advocate the need for continuing, extensive efforts to monitor cyanobacterial growth and to understand the mechanisms regulating species composition and cyanotoxin biosynthesis. In this review, we critically examined the genomic organization of some cyanobacterial species that lead to the production of cyanotoxins and their characteristic properties discovered to date.

Insights into the conversion of dissolved organic phosphorus favors algal bloom, arsenate biotransformation and microcystins release of Microcystis aeruginosa.

Little information is available on influences of the conversion of dissolved organic phosphorus (DOP) to inorganic phosphorus (IP) on algal growth and subsequent behaviors of arsenate (As(V)) in Microcystis aeruginosa (M. aeruginosa). In this study, the influences factors on the conversion of three typical DOP types including adenosine-5-triphosphate disodium salt (ATP), ß-glycerophosphate sodium (ßP) and D-glucose-6-phosphate disodium salt (GP) were investigated under different extracellular polymeric secretions (EPS) ratios from M. aeruginosa, and As(V) levels. Thus, algal growth, As(V) biotransformation and microcystins (MCs) release of M. aeruginosa were explored in the different converted DOP conditions compared with IP. Results showed that the three DOP to IP without EPS addition became in favor of algal growth during their conversion. Compared with IP, M. aeruginosa growth was thus facilitated in the three converted DOP conditions, subsequently resulting in potential algal bloom particularly at arsenic (As) contaminated water environment. Additionally, DOP after conversion could inhibit As accumulation in M. aeruginosa, thus intracellular As accumulation was lower in the converted DOP conditions than that in IP condition. As(V) biotransformation and MCs release in M. aeruginosa was impacted by different converted DOP with their different types. Specifically, DMA concentrations in media and As(III) ratios in algal cells were promoted in converted ßP condition, indicating that the observed dissolved organic compositions from ßP conversion could enhance As(V) reduction in M. aeruginosa and then accelerate DMA release. The obtained findings can provide better understanding of cyanobacteria blooms and As biotransformation in different DOP as the main phosphorus source.

Metagenomic and Metatranscriptomic Insights into Population Diversity of Microcystis Blooms: Spatial and Temporal Dynamics of mcy Genotypes, Including a Partial Operon That Can Be Abundant and Expressed.

Cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms (cyanoHABs) degrade freshwater ecosystems globally. Microcystis aeruginosa often dominates cyanoHABs and produces microcystin (MC), a class of hepatotoxins that poses threats to human and animal health. Microcystin toxicity is influenced by distinct structural elements across a diversity of related molecules encoded by variant mcy operons. However, the composition and distribution of mcy operon variants in natural blooms remain poorly understood. Here, we characterized the variant composition of mcy genes in western Lake Erie Microcystis blooms from 2014 and 2018. Sampling was conducted across several spatial and temporal scales, including different bloom phases within 2014, extensive spatial coverage on the same day (2018), and frequent, autonomous sampling over a 2-week period (2018). Mapping of metagenomic and metatranscriptomic sequences to reference sequences revealed three Microcystis mcy genotypes: complete (all genes present [mcyA-J]), partial (truncated mcyA, complete mcyBC, and missing mcyD-J), and absent (no mcy genes). We also detected two different variants of mcyB that may influence the production of microcystin congeners. The relative abundance of these genotypes was correlated with pH and nitrate concentrations. Metatranscriptomic analysis revealed that partial operons were, at times, the most abundant genotype and expressed in situ, suggesting the potential biosynthesis of truncated products. Quantification of genetic divergence between genotypes suggests that the observed strains are the result of preexisting heterogeneity rather than de novo mutation during the sampling period. Overall, our results show that natural Microcystis populations contain several cooccurring mcy genotypes that dynamically shift in abundance spatiotemporally via strain succession and likely influence the observed diversity of the produced congeners. IMPORTANCE Cyanobacteria are responsible for producing microcystins (MCs), a class of potent and structurally diverse toxins, in freshwater systems around the world. While microcystins have been studied for over 50 years, the diversity of their chemical forms and how this variation is encoded at the genetic level remain poorly understood, especially within natural populations of cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms (cyanoHABs). Here, we leverage community DNA and RNA sequences to track shifts in mcy genes responsible for producing microcystin, uncovering the relative abundance, expression, and variation of these genes. We studied this phenomenon in western Lake Erie, which suffers annually from cyanoHAB events, with impacts on drinking water, recreation, tourism, and commercial fishing.

Heterotrophic Bacteria Dominate Catalase Expression during Microcystis Blooms.

In the oligotrophic oceans, key autotrophs depend on "helper" bacteria to reduce oxidative stress from hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in the extracellular environment. H2O2 is also a ubiquitous stressor in freshwaters, but the effects of H2O2 on autotrophs and their interactions with bacteria are less well understood in freshwaters. Naturally occurring H2O2 in freshwater systems is proposed to impact the proportion of microcystin-producing (toxic) and non-microcystin-producing (nontoxic) Microcystis in blooms, which influences toxin concentrations and human health impacts. However, how different strains of Microcystis respond to naturally occurring H2O2 concentrations and the microbes responsible for H2O2 decomposition in freshwater cyanobacterial blooms are unknown. To address these knowledge gaps, we used metagenomics and metatranscriptomics to track the presence and expression of genes for H2O2 decomposition by microbes during a cyanobacterial bloom in western Lake Erie in the summer of 2014. katG encodes the key enzyme for decomposing extracellular H2O2 but was absent in most Microcystis cells. katG transcript relative abundance was dominated by heterotrophic bacteria. In axenic Microcystis cultures, an H2O2 scavenger (pyruvate) significantly improved growth rates of one toxic strain while other toxic and nontoxic strains were unaffected. These results indicate that heterotrophic bacteria play a key role in H2O2 decomposition in Microcystis blooms and suggest that their activity may affect the fitness of some Microcystis strains and thus the strain composition of Microcystis blooms but not along a toxic versus nontoxic dichotomy. IMPORTANCE Cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms (CHABs) threaten freshwater ecosystems globally through the production of toxins. Toxin production by cyanobacterial species and strains during CHABs varies widely over time and space, but the ecological drivers of the succession of toxin-producing species remain unclear. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is ubiquitous in natural waters, inhibits microbial growth, and may determine the relative proportions of Microcystis strains during blooms. However, the mechanisms and organismal interactions involved in H2O2 decomposition are unexplored in CHABs. This study shows that some strains of bloom-forming freshwater cyanobacteria benefit from detoxification of H2O2 by associated heterotrophic bacteria, which may impact bloom development.