Clinical and pathological examination of mycotoxicosis as an associated risk factor for colic in equine.

A retrospective cohort study was conducted on two Egyptian horse farms with most of horses were suffered from abdominal pain to describe the associations between the occurrence of mycotoxicosis and equine colic. The farms owner complain was an unexpected increase in number of colic cases and deaths among horses. The association between colic and risk factors (sex, type of food either dry or mixed with roughages and hematobiochemical parameters) was compared using independent sample T-test. The associations between possible prognostic indicators for colic caused by mycotoxicosis was estimated using logistic regression analysis model. The cumulative incidence, incidence rates for colic attacks, survival rate among diseased horses were additionally estimated. Our results showed that a total of 24 out of the 132 horses suffered from colic due to feeding of ration contaminated with high percent of mycotoxin including Aflatoxins, Ochratoxins and or fusarium mycotoxins. The total cumulative incidence of colic due to mycotoxicosis was 19.7%. The horses fed on dry rations had more chance of developing colic than horses fed on mixed rations (P < 0.05). The overall incidence rate of colic due to mycotoxicosis was estimated at 18 colic attack/1000 horse/month. The mortality rate of horses suffered from colic due to mycotoxicosis was estimated at 5.9% (5/85), while the case fatality rate was estimated at 25% (n = 5/20). Inconclusion, our results showed that mycotoxicosis are considered an important risks factor for colic cases development in equine practice.

Potential application of probiotics in mycotoxicosis reduction in mammals and poultry.

Mycotoxins in feedstuffs are considered as a principal worry by food safety authorities worldwide because most of them can be transferred from the feed to food commodities of animal origin, and further consumed by humans. Therefore, effective alternatives for the reduction of the impact of mycotoxins need to be applied in the feed production industry. Applications of beneficial microorganisms (probiotics) can be alternative and applied as feed additives in order to reduce or eliminate the toxic effects of mycotoxins on animals. The aim of this article is to provide information on the role of beneficial microorganisms (probiotics) and point out their role in the reduction of the effect of mycotoxin toxicity in farming animals (mammals and poultry). The objective was to provide a summary of the existing knowledge based on the application of different strains belonging to the group of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) or yeasts that are already or can be future employed in the feed industry, in order to reduce mycotoxicosis presence in mammals and poultry exposed to mycotoxin-contaminated feed. Moreover, an overview of mycotoxins toxicity in mammals and poultry will be presented, and furthermore, the role of the beneficial microorganisms (including probiotics) in the reduction of mycotoxins toxicity (aflatoxicosis, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, ochratoxin A, and fumonisin toxicities) will be described in detail.

Diagnosing subclinical facial eczema in cattle: does combining liver enzyme tests increase the accuracy of diagnosis?

AIMS: To assess whether adding glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) activity measurements to measurements of gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) activity appreciably increases the accuracy of diagnosis of subclinical facial eczema (FE) in cattle. METHODS: As part of a larger study on the impact of FE on productivity, GGT and GDH activities were measured in serum samples collected from 426 cattle from one dairy farm in the Taranaki region in April 2018. Bayesian latent class analysis was then used to estimate herd prevalence of subclinical FE as well as the specificity and sensitivity of the activity in serum of GGT or GDH alone, and of GGT and GDH activities combined, as diagnostic tests for subclinical FE. RESULTS: The latent class analysis estimated the true prevalence of subclinical FE in the study population as 47.5 (95% probability interval (PI) = 38.3-55.3)%. There was no evidence of any clinically relevant difference between GGT and GDH activities as predictors of subclinical FE; the difference between the areas under the receiver operating characteristic curves for the two measures was 0.005 (95% PI = -0.02 to -0.03). Using the two tests in parallel, with a threshold of 50 IU/L for GGT and 225 IU/L for GDH resulted in specificity and sensitivity of >95%, markedly increasing the accuracy of diagnosis of subclinical FE compared to using GGT or GDH alone at any threshold. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: In this herd, combining the two tests resulted in a clinically relevant improvement in the accuracy of diagnosis of subclinical FE compared to using either test alone, which if used at the individual level will result in fewer cattle being assigned the wrong FE status. This will also apply at the herd level, with combined testing producing fewer false-positive herd test results than using one enzyme alone. This is particularly important for monitoring the efficacy of FE control measures when the expectation should be that the proportion of cattle with FE is very low.

The ameliorative effects of Nigella sativa, thymoquinone, and bentonite against aflatoxicosis in broilers via AFAR and Nrf2 signalling pathways, and down-regulation of caspase-3.

1. Aflatoxins (AFs) are metabolites which especially have toxic effects on proteins, and are detoxified by the aflatoxin-B1 aldehyde reductase (AFAR) pathway. In this pathway, the aldo-keto reductase family 7, member A2 (AKR7A2) enzyme, which is controlled by nucleic-related erythroid factor 2 (Nrf2), plays an active role. However, data on the efficacy of this critical pathway in broilers is limited.2. The aim of the following study was to investigate the changes in the expression levels of AKR7A2, Nrf2, and caspase-3, and the effects of Nigella sativa seeds (NS), thymoquinone (TMQ), and bentonite (BNT) in broilers exposed to AFs.3. One-hundred broilers were divided into ten groups (control (CNT); AF; NS; TMQ; BNT; AF+TMQ; AF+NS; AF+BNT; AF+BNT+NS; AF+BNT+TMQ) and fed for 28 d. AF, TMQ, NS and BNT were added to diets at levels of 2 mg/kg, 300 mg/kg, 50 g/kg and 10 g/kg respectively.4. The addition of AF to the diet decreased AKR7A2 and Nrf2 levels dramatically, but increased caspase-3 (P < 0.01). TMQ, NS and BNT additions to the diet eliminated all negative effects caused by AF (P < 0.01); and AKR7A2 and Nrf2 were further raised in TMQ and NS groups when compared to the control group. TMQ and NS showed a positive effect on detoxification parameters when given together with BNT.5. Supplementation with NS and TMQ enhanced AF detoxification via the AFAR pathway, by increasing AKR7A2 and Nrf2 levels, in addition to reducing hepatocyte apoptosis.

Efficacy of phytobiotic and toxin binder feed additives individually or in combination on the growth performance, blood biochemical parameters, intestinal morphology, and microbial population in broiler chickens exposed to aflatoxin B1.

This experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of phytobiotic and antifungal feed additives on the growth performance, blood parameters, intestinal morphology, and cecal microbiota activity of broiler chickens under aflatoxicosis challenge. A total of 250 one-day-old Ross 308 broiler chicks (mixed sex) were reared on the littered floor with a completely randomized design by five treatments and five replicates for 35 days. Treatments included positive control (without AFB1), negative control-AFB1 (1 ppm), negative control-phytobiotic (Entex, 0.5 kg/t), negative control-Mycofix Plus (0.5 kg/t), and negative control-phytobiotic + Mycofix Plus. Dietary phytogenic and toxin binder improved body weight gain and feed conversion ratio of broiler chickens (p<0.05). Serum concentration of AST increased in broilers which received AFB1 without additives, while the blood concentration of total protein decreased (p<0.05). In jejuna morphometric indices, it was observed that the broiler chickens fed phytobiotic additive in combination with toxin binder had a greater villus length and crypt depth (p<0.05). Dietary treatments had no significant effect on the cecal microbial population in broiler chickens. In conclusion, the present results indicated that phytobiotic and toxin binder supplement improved growth performance and intestinal morphology of broiler chickens exposed to AFB1 challenge.

Development of a genetic evaluation for hair shedding in American Angus cattle to improve thermotolerance.

BACKGROUND: Heat stress and fescue toxicosis caused by ingesting tall fescue infected with the endophytic fungus Epichloë coenophiala represent two of the most prevalent stressors to beef cattle in the United States and cost the beef industry millions of dollars each year. The rate at which a beef cow sheds her winter coat early in the summer is an indicator of adaptation to heat and an economically relevant trait in temperate or subtropical parts of the world. Furthermore, research suggests that early-summer hair shedding may reflect tolerance to fescue toxicosis, since vasoconstriction induced by fescue toxicosis limits the ability of an animal to shed its winter coat. Both heat stress and fescue toxicosis reduce profitability partly via indirect maternal effects on calf weaning weight. Here, we developed parameters for routine genetic evaluation of hair shedding score in American Angus cattle, and identified genomic loci associated with variation in hair shedding score via genome-wide association analysis (GWAA). RESULTS: Hair shedding score was moderately heritable (h2 = 0.34 to 0.40), with different repeatability estimates between cattle grazing versus not grazing endophyte-infected tall fescue. Our results suggest modestly negative genetic and phenotypic correlations between a dam's hair shedding score (lower score is earlier shedding) and the weaning weight of her calf, which is one metric of performance. Together, these results indicate that economic gains can be made by using hair shedding score breeding values to select for heat-tolerant cattle. GWAA identified 176 variants significant at FDR < 0.05. Functional enrichment analyses using genes that were located within 50 kb of these variants identified pathways involved in keratin formation, prolactin signalling, host-virus interaction, and other biological processes. CONCLUSIONS: This work contributes to a continuing trend in the development of genetic evaluations for environmental adaptation. Our results will aid beef cattle producers in selecting more sustainable and climate-adapted cattle, as well as enable the development of similar routine genetic evaluations in other breeds.

Toxicopathological effects of feeding aflatoxins B1 in broilers and its ameliosration with indigenous mycotoxin binder.

Mycotoxicosis is the second most important problem faced by the Pakistan poultry industry, after high feed prices. The present experimental study was designed to investigate the toxicopathological effects of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in commercial broiler chicks and its amelioration with locally produced mycotoxin binder. Total of 125 broiler chicks was divided into five equal groups (A-E). Group A served as negative control, group B (300 µg AFB1/kg feed) as positive control, group C (300 µg AFB1/kg + Local Mycotoxin Binder (LMB), 1 g/kg feed), group D (300 µg AFB1/kg + 2 g LMB/kg feed), and group E (300 µg AFB1/kg + Commercial Mycotoxin Binder (CMB), 2 g/kg of feed). Parameters studied included mortality, feed intake, bodyweights, absolute and relative organ weights, and gross and microscopic lesions in visceral organs. Clinical signs including alertness, fecal consistency, and feather shine were significantly lower in group B compared with control group A. The feed intake of 2 g/kg LMB treated group was significantly higher than that of the positive control group B. Also mean bodyweights of group D birds was higher than that of group B birds indicating an ameliorative effect of LMB. Histopathological results showed that moldy feed produced necrotic changes in the liver and kidneys in group B birds. However, in group D and E birds, the hepatic and renal parenchyma was normal, showing a protective effect of LMB. In the present study, a higher dose of LMB (2 g/kg) in group D showed higher bodyweights and feed intake. In group D, birds hepatic and renal parenchyma was also normal. The results suggested that local mycotoxin binder ameliorated the toxicopathological effects of AFB1 in mortality, feed intake, bodyweights, organ weights and, gross and microscopic lesions in visceral organs. These ameliorative effects of LMB were dose-dependent. The results of the present study concluded that AFB1 intoxication leads to decrease in bodyweights, feed intake in dose-related manner. The mortality was also dose-dependent. Gross and microscopic changes in the aflatoxin groups were more pronounced, however, all these deleterious effects were ameliorated in higher dose of LMB (group D) and CMB (group E). In group C, these deleterious effects were partially ameliorated. Local mycotoxin binder is an economical solution for aflatoxicosis problem, making poultry production more cost-effective.

The influence of local market and household factors on aflatoxin presence in maize and symptoms of its exposure to children in Guatemala.

Recent evidence supports the hypothesis that aflatoxin exposure from maize can influence malnutrition rates among children. Therefore, in Guatemala we investigated two questions; which maize sources exposed households to higher risk of aflatoxin exposure symptoms and what the risk factors were for each maize source, pre- and post-maize harvest. Survey data and household maize samples were collected in October 2016 (pre-harvest) and February 2017 (post-harvest) in San Vicente, Guatemala. Structural equation modeling (SEM) and odds ratios were used to assess the data. The results suggested that households which purchased maize from the market had 3.64 higher odds of high levels of aflatoxin. The models identified that good market purchase habits were significant for market-based maize sources while improved post-harvest practices and improved types of maize storage were significant for subsistence-based maize sources. Cumulative results suggest multiple interventions may be effective but are dependent on time of year and source of maize.

Nutrient stability in mould-infested feed and mitigating effect of dietary supplemental vitamins in brown laying hens.

A 10-week study was conducted to assess the impact of mould infestation on nutrient stability of feed and the mitigating effect of supplemental tocopherol, retinol or a multivitamin on performance and hepatic histology of ISA Brown laying chickens. Two batches of corn were obtained: the aflasafe corn used in preparing control diet and corn with physical evidence of mould used in preparing diets 2 to 5 containing no supplemental vitamin, tocopherol, retinol or a branded multivitamin supplementations respectively. One hundred and fifty (150) laying chickens used were completely randomized into five dietary treatments with three replicates of 10 birds each. Results showed that there was gross instability in the nutrients of mouldy maize. The activities of the fungi depleted both protein and lipid contents by 11.54% and 12.72% respectively while crude fibre content rose by 31.7%. There was substantial drop in both retinol and tocopherol while aflatoxin content rose to 267 µg in mouldy corn and 118 µg in the mouldy diets. Feed intake was significantly (P < 0.05) reduced and consequently depressed (P < 0.05) egg production and feed efficiency. Egg quality differs (P < 0.05) in shell thickness and yolk colour. Proliferation of biliary duct epithelium, hepatic degeneration, cellular infiltration, hyper-cellularity or dilation of the sinusoidal spaces characterized livers of birds on mouldy corn diets while supplementation with vitamins subverted mycosis and aflatoxicosis as evidenced by normal-to-mild congestion of hepatocytes. It was concluded that mould contamination in feed compromised feed nutritive values, reduced bird performance and adversely impaired the liver of the experimental birds while tocopherol, retinol or a multivitamin supplementation relapses the damaging potential of mould and mycotoxin differently.

Lyme Disease and Mycotoxicosis: How to Differentiate Between the Two.

No Abstract Available.

Investigation of antifungal activity of surfactin against mycotoxigenic phytopathogenic fungus Fusarium moniliforme and its impact in seed germination and mycotoxicosis.

The mycotoxigenic phytopathogenic fungus such as Fusarium moniliforme contamination in maize kernels may not only affect seed germination but also negatively cause mycotoxicosis in animals and humans. There is no effective fungicides to control the growth of F. moniliforme on maize kernels. Hence, effective bioactive compounds are needed to prevent plant and animal diseases associated with F. moniliforme contamination in cereals. Surfactin is an well-known antimicrobial lipopeptide has strong antifungal activities against several phytopathogenic fungi and may have potential uses in agriculture. So, in this present study the antifungal activity of surfactin extracted from Brevibacillus brevis KN8(2) was investigated against F. moniliforme, further its impact in seed germination and mycotoxicosis was also studied. Our results showed that surfactin inhibited and damaged the hyphae of F. moniliforme in in vitro. The agarose gel electrophoresis, SDS-PAGE analysis and biochemical assay presented that surfactin damaged the DNA, protein and reduced the GSH content in F. moniliforme. Furthermore, surfactin prevent maize seed germination problem and mycotoxicosis in animal model associated with F. moniliforme via prevention of F. moniliforme contamination on maize kernels. These findings revealed that surfactin could be an effective bio-fungicide in the plant disease management.

Fungal infections in animals: a patchwork of different situations.

The importance of fungal infections in both human and animals has increased over the last decades. This article represents an overview of the different categories of fungal infections that can be encountered in animals originating from environmental sources without transmission to humans. In addition, the endemic infections with indirect transmission from the environment, the zoophilic fungal pathogens with near-direct transmission, the zoonotic fungi that can be directly transmitted from animals to humans, mycotoxicoses and antifungal resistance in animals will also be discussed. Opportunistic mycoses are responsible for a wide range of diseases from localized infections to fatal disseminated diseases, such as aspergillosis, mucormycosis, candidiasis, cryptococcosis and infections caused by melanized fungi. The amphibian fungal disease chytridiomycosis and the Bat White-nose syndrome are due to obligatory fungal pathogens. Zoonotic agents are naturally transmitted from vertebrate animals to humans and vice versa. The list of zoonotic fungal agents is limited but some species, like Microsporum canis and Sporothrix brasiliensis from cats, have a strong public health impact. Mycotoxins are defined as the chemicals of fungal origin being toxic for warm-blooded vertebrates. Intoxications by aflatoxins and ochratoxins represent a threat for both human and animal health. Resistance to antifungals can occur in different animal species that receive these drugs, although the true epidemiology of resistance in animals is unknown, and options to treat infections caused by resistant infections are limited.

Prevalence of Degnala disease in bovine along with screening of toxigenic fungi isolated from contaminated rice straw.

Toxigenic potential of different candidate fungi, isolated from rice straw feed of Degnala disease affected bovines was analyzed along with species, age, gender and seasonal prevalence. Of 1,536 cases, 104 (6.77%) showed positive signs with a significant association (p less than 0.05) between this disease and rice straw feeding, in buffaloes, and bovine aged over 1 year in the winter season. Complete blood count showed a marked increase in erythrocyte sedimentation rate and all white blood cells numbers, except lymphocytes in positive cases. There was a significant increase (p less than 0.05) in alanine amino transferase, aspirate amino transferase and alkaline phosphatase in the liver function test. At the same time, an increased value of creatinine was noted in the renal function test. For isolation and screening of toxigenic fungi, rice straw samples (n=40) being fed to the positive cases were processed further, and 85 fungal isolates were found, mainly of Aspergillus (57), Penicillium (10), Fusarium (04), Zygomycetes (03), Curvularia (01) and unidentified (10). All isolated fungi were subjected for mycotoxin production and only 11 showed mycotoxin-producing capability (including Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium isolates) analyzed by thin layer chromatography and quantified through high performance liquid chromatography. It is concluded that all the fungi contaminating rice straw feed of Degnala affected animals were not toxigenic. This work will help in establishing major mycotoxin-producing fungi leading to the probable cause of Degnala disease in bovine.

Brevetoxin exposure in sea turtles in south Texas (USA) during Karenia brevis red tide.

Five green (Chelonia mydas) and 11 Kemp's ridley (Lepidochelys kempii) sea turtles found dead, or that died soon after stranding, on the southern Texas (USA) coast during 2 Karenia brevis blooms (October 2015, September-October 2016) were tested for exposure to brevetoxins (PbTx). Tissues (liver, kidney) and digesta (stomach and intestinal contents) were analyzed by ELISA. Three green turtles found alive during the 2015 event and 2 Kemp's ridley turtles found alive during the 2016 event exhibited signs of PbTx exposure, including lethargy and/or convulsions of the head and neck. PbTx were detected in 1 or more tissues or digesta in all 16 stranded turtles. Detected PbTx concentrations ranged from 2 to >2000 ng g-1. Necropsy examination and results of PbTx analysis indicated that 10 of the Kemp's ridleys and 2 of the green turtles died from brevetoxicosis via ingestion. This is the first documentation of sea turtle mortality in Texas attributed to brevetoxicosis.

Effect of dietary macronutrients on aflatoxicosis: a mini-review.

Aflatoxin is a toxin produced by Aspergillus species of fungi. The main route of aflatoxin exposure is through the diet. Indeed, long-term aflatoxin exposure is linked to the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Aflatoxin causes aflatoxicosis, which can be affected by several factors and is prevalent in many developing Asian and African countries. This mini-review discusses the effects of carbohydrate, fat and protein on aflatoxicosis based on findings from animal and human studies. It was found that high carbohydrate intake enhanced aflatoxicosis occurrence, while low ingestion of carbohydrate with caloric restriction slowed the symptoms associated with aflatoxicosis. Additionally, diets with low protein content worsened the symptoms related to HCC due to aflatoxin exposure. Nevertheless, a study reported that a high-protein diet favored detoxification of aflatoxin in vivo. There were also conflicting results on the influence of dietary fat, as high ingestion of fat enhanced aflatoxicosis development as compared with a low-fat diet. Moreover, the type of fat also plays a significant role in influencing aflatoxin toxicity. In regard to food safety, understanding the influence of macronutrients toward the progression of aflatoxicosis can improve preventive measures against human and animal exposure to aflatoxin. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Acute photosensitisation and mortality in a herd of dairy cattle in Tasmania.

CASE HISTORY: A herd of Holstein, Jersey, or Holstein-Jersey cross lactating cattle of mixed ages presented with a sudden drop in milk yield in 94/678 cows on 3 October 2014 (Day 0). The herd was located in Gretna in the Derwent Valley (Tasmania, Australia) and had been grazing dryland pasture. CLINICAL FINDINGS: On Day 0 the cows variably showed recumbency, peracute photosensitisation, inflamed coronary bands, conjunctival erythema, periauricular oedema, distress indicated by kicking at the flank, bruxism, discomfort, weight shifting, vocalisation indicating pain and depression. Blood samples collected on Day 4 from five clinically affected cows showed high activities of aspartate aminotransferase, glutamate dehydrogenase and gamma-glutamyl transferase. Morbidity, based on the number of treated cases within 72 hours of clinical onset, was estimated at 165/678 cows (24.3%). Mortality over the first 30 days was 19/678 cows (2.8%). PATHOLOGICAL FINDINGS: Necropsies of two cows on Day 4 showed marked distension of the gall bladder and extensive icterus. Necropsies of another two cows on Day 5 showed enlarged livers with severe damage and oedema of the distal abomasum. Severe ulcerative abomasal gastritis was present in both cows. Hepatic histopathology was consistent with chronic cholangiohepatitis. MYCOTOXICOLOGY: Fifty-five different mycotoxins were detected from a barley grass (Hordeum murinum) sample from the presumably contaminated pasture. Concentrations of B-trichothecenes, fumonisins, and zearalenone metabolites from this sample were remarkably high. The leaf smut, Jamesdicksonia dactylidis, that has not been previously reported in Tasmania, was identified from the sample of barley grass, but it is not known whether the smut can produce toxins. DIAGNOSIS: Probably an undescribed peracute mycotoxicosis associated with the ingestion of contaminated dryland pasture. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: A definitive diagnosis could not be reached in this case of acute photosensitisation and mortality in dairy cattle grazing possibly contaminated dryland pasture. The findings differed from both facial eczema and acute bovine liver disease, suggesting an undescribed mycotoxicosis.

Effects of dietary protein concentration on performance and nutrient digestibility in Pekin ducks during aflatoxicosis.

A 14-d study was conducted to determine the impact of dietary crude protein concentration on performance, serum biochemistry, and nutrient digestive functions in Pekin ducklings during aflatoxicosis. A total of 144 male Pekin ducklings were randomly allotted to 4 dietary treatments arranged in a 2×2 factorial with 2 crude protein (CP) (20 and 24% on an analyzed basis) with or without 0.2 mg/kg aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) (0.21 mg/kg analyzed). The AFB1 reduced BW gain, feed intake, and breast muscle weight by 33 to 43% (P<0.0001). Serum concentration of protein, glucose, and Ca were also decreased by AFB1 (P≤0.0015), while pancreatic activities of amylase and lipase were increased by AFB1 (P<0.005). Apparent N digestibility was not affected by dietary treatment, whereas apparent ileal digestible energy was reduced 7.6% by AFB1 (P=0.0003). Higher dietary CP improved BW gain, gain:feed ratio, and breast muscle weight (P≤0.021), and tended to improve feed intake (P=0.094), but did not improve serum measures, digestive enzyme activity, or nutrient digestibility. No statistical interaction of AFB1 by CP was observed for any measures. Results from the current study suggest that AFB1 at low concentration can significantly impair performance of Pekin ducklings primarily through inhibited feed intake, as well as influence nutrient digestion processes (jejunum morphology, digestive enzyme activity, and apparent energy digestibility). Higher dietary CP can improve growth performance of ducklings regardless of AF exposure, but did not interact with dietary AFB1 on performance, serum biochemistry, or nutrient digestion in Pekin ducklings from hatch to 14 d.

The role of bentonite binders in single or concomitant mycotoxin contamination of chicken diets.

Concomitant presence of mycotoxins is more likely to appear than a single mycotoxicosis since many mycotoxigenic fungi grow and produce their toxic metabolites under similar conditions. The present study was designed to evaluate the efficacy of 4 mycotoxin binders to protect meat-type chickens against single and concomitant administration in the feed of two mycotoxins, namely aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and ochratoxin A (OTA) both at concentration of 0.1 mg/kg. A total of 440 as hatched, d-old, Ross 308 broilers were reared for 42 d. There were 11 dietary treatments. Chickens were fed on either an uncontaminated basal diet, basal diet and AFB1, basal with concomitant presence of AFB1 and OTA, basal diet and three binders A, B and C (1%) with or without AFB1 or basal diet and binder D (0.5%) with or without concomitant presence of AFB1 and OTA. Performance, carcass yield and several biochemical parameters were examined. Mycotoxin concentration in liver and breast muscle samples was determined. Broiler performance under concomitant mycotoxin contamination was poorer than that under single mycotoxicosis. Mycotoxin presence increased relative heart weight compared to that of broilers fed on uncontaminated diets. Only OTA and not AFB1 was detected and only in the liver. OTA concentration was four-fold lower in broilers fed on a diet with binder compared to those fed on contaminated diets without binder. In conclusion, the study revealed that binder composition and presence or not of multiple toxins may be important factors for optimum broiler performance under mycotoxicosis.

Protective effects of Urtica dioica seed extract in aflatoxicosis: histopathological and biochemical findings.

The ameliorative potential and antioxidant capacity of an extract of Urtica dioica seeds (UDS) was investigated using histopathological changes in liver and kidney, measuring serum marker enzymes, antioxidant defence systems and lipid peroxidation (malondialdehyde (MDA)) content in various tissues of broilers exposed to aflatoxin (AF). A total of 32 broilers were divided randomly into 4 groups: control, UDS extract-treated, AF-treated and AF+UDS extract-treated. Broilers in control and UDS extract-treated groups were fed on a diet without AF. The AF-treated group and AF+UDS extract-treated groups were treated with an estimated 1 mg total AF/kg feed. The AF+UDS extract groups received in addition 30 ml UDS extract/kg diet for 21 d. The AF-treated group had significantly decreased body weight gain when compared to the other groups. Biochemical analysis showed a small increase in the concentrations of serum aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, gamma glutamyl transpeptidase and lactate dehydrogenase in the AF-treated group compared to that of the control group, whereas concentrations of these enzymes were decreased in the AF+UDS group compared to that of the AF-treated group. Administration of supplementary UDS extract helped restore the AF-induced increase in MDA and reduced the antioxidant system towards normality, particularly in the liver, brain, kidney and heart. Hepatorenal protection by UDS extracts was further supported by the almost normal histology in AF+UDS extract-treated group as compared to the degenerative changes in the AF-treated broilers. It was concluded that UDS extract has a protective hepatorenal effect in broilers affected by aflatoxicosis, probably acting by promoting the antioxidative defence systems.

Environment contamination by mycotoxins and their occurrence in food and feed: Physiological aspects and economical approach.

The contamination of food and feed by mycotoxins as toxic metabolites of fungi is a risk not only for consumers resulting in various embarrassment regarding health status and well-being, but also for producers, companies and export market on the ground of economic losses and ruined stability of economic trade. As it is given in historical evidence, the contamination of food by mycotoxins is a topic as old as a history of mankind, finding some evidence even in the ancient books and records. Nowadays, the mycotoxins are used in modern biotechnological laboratories and are considered an agent for targeting the specific cells (e.g., defected cells to eliminate them). However, this promising procedure is only the beginning. More concern is focused on mycotoxins as abiotic hazard agents. The dealing with them, systematic monitoring, and development of techniques for their elimination from agricultural commodities are worldwide issues concerning all countries. They can be found alone or in co-occurrence with other mycotoxins. Thus, this review aims to provide widened information regarding mycotoxins contamination in environment with the consequences on health of animals and humans. The inevitability for more data that correctly determine the risk points linked to mycotoxins occurrence and their specific reactions in the environment is demonstrated. This review includes various symptoms in animals and humans that result from mycotoxin exposure. For better understanding of mycotoxin's impact on animals, the sensitivities of various animal species to various mycotoxins are listed. Strategies for elimination and preventing the risks of mycotoxins contamination as well as economical approach are discussed. To complete the topic, some data from past as historical evidences are presented.