CLINICAL FINDINGS OF DENTAL DISEASE AND POTENTIAL CONTRIBUTING FACTORS IN PYGMY SLOW LORISES (NYCTICEBUS PYGMAEUS) UNDER HUMAN CARE.

Dental disease is a common finding in pygmy slow lorises (Nycticebus pygmaeus) under human care, but the etiology is not fully understood. The small oral cavity in this species can make diagnosis of dental disease difficult. This retrospective study evaluated medical records and diet and husbandry protocols from 18 participating institutions with the objective of describing the signalment, clinical signs, physical exam findings, tooth type, tooth location, diagnostics used, and treatments performed to help guide care for dental disease. In addition, the study aimed to identify potential contributing factors to dental disease in this species. Of 59 animals with medical records evaluated, 42 (71.2%) had dental disease: 19 (44.2%) males, 20 (46.5%) females, and 3 (9.3%) without gender documented. Average age at onset of dental disease was 7.6 yr in males and 9 yr in females. Multiple lorises with dental disease (n = 12; 28.6%) had no premonitory clinical signs, and dental disease was found incidentally on examination. On dental examination, 30 lorises (71.4%) had evidence of gingivitis. In 13 cases skull radiographs were taken, but the majority of images (n = 8; 61.5%) were nondiagnostic for pathologic dental changes. A small proportion of cases with dental abnormalities (n = 4; 9.5%) were diagnosed using computed tomography. In total, 175 teeth were extracted from 31 patients; molars were the most frequently extracted tooth (n = 55; 31.4%). No substantial differences in diets were noted among many of the participating institutions, and not all slow lorises evaluated developed dental disease (n = 17; 28.8%). This retrospective study provides clinical findings on slow loris dental disease and guidance for the veterinary care and management of slow lorises under human care.

Dental Radiography and Radiographic Signs of Equine Dental Disease.

Radiography is an important imaging modality and is available to most equine veterinarians providing primary care. Diagnostic radiographic imaging of the equine skull and dentition requires careful positioning and technique. This article is aimed at providing the veterinarian with instructions and guidelines for obtaining diagnostic skull and dental radiographs and a discussion of the radiographic signs of dental disease with case-based examples. The limitations of radiography are discussed with regard to determining the need for adjunct diagnostic techniques and more advanced imaging techniques, such as computed tomography.

Equine Imaging: Computed Tomography Interpretation.

Computed tomography (CT) has revolutionized the veterinarian's ability to image the equine skull and led to improved diagnostic accuracy and clarity for surgical planning. The increased cost for this evaluation is offset by more accurate diagnosis and targeted therapy. As novel technology is developed that allows for increased availability of equine head, the price will continue to decrease and more examinations will be performed. New skills are needed for the veterinarian to accurately interpret this modality. This article reviews the normal CT appearance of the equine skull and presents examples and key features of several common diseases.

Dental Disorders of Donkeys.

Research and clinical understanding of equine dentistry has progressed in recent years; however, specific knowledge about donkey dentistry is lacking. This article intends to revise unique anatomic features of the head and oral cavity of donkeys, as well as how to correctly examine, diagnose, prevent, and/or treat dental pathology, allowing for a better comprehension of oral and dental disorders affecting these animals throughout their life. It also emphasizes that these disorders need to be taken into account when assessing the welfare of donkeys.

A RETROSPECTIVE STUDY OF REPORTED DISORDERS OF THE ORAL CAVITY IN LARGE FELIDS IN AUSTRALIAN ZOOS.

Disorders of the oral cavity are conditions reported by veterinarians that impact the health and welfare of large felids in human care. There have been no studies documenting the prevalence of these conditions and species affected in Australian zoos. A review of the medical records of lions (Panthera leo), tigers (Panthera tigris), cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus), jaguars (Puma onca), snow leopards (Panthera uncia), Persian leopards (Panthera pardus saxicolor), and cougars (Puma concolor) from 10 Australian zoos and an online survey of zoo professionals from Australian and New Zealand zoos was performed to determine the recorded prevalence of disorders of the oral cavity in these species. Preliminary assessments were also made to determine if there was an association between the occurrence of tooth fractures and diet, feeding practices, species, sex, and age of the animal. The study also examined associations of these conditions with behavior, such as fighting, and husbandry practices, such as the provision of enrichment items. The review found that tooth fractures were common in tigers and lions greater than 8 yr of age. Animal caregivers attributed this to animals chewing on large, hard pieces of bone in some instances, but this could not be verified. Instances of bones being lodged between canine teeth were observed and appeared to be related to the feeding of bones of inappropriate size. Based on these findings, it is recommended that guidelines for bone size fed be developed and that animals over the age of 8 yr receive regular dental examinations under general anesthesia.

Odontogenic abscesses in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) of Cayo Santiago.

OBJECTIVES: Odontogenic abscesses are one of the most common dental diseases causing maxillofacial skeletal lesions. They affect the individual's ability to maintain the dental structures necessary to obtain adequate nutrition for survival and reproduction. In this study, the prevalence and pattern of odontogenic abscesses in relation to age, sex, matriline, and living periods were investigated in adult rhesus macaque skeletons of the free-ranging colony on Cayo Santiago, Puerto Rico. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The skulls used for this study were from the skeletons of 752 adult rhesus macaques, aged 8-31 years, and born between 1951 and 2000. They came from 66 matrilines ranging from 1 to 88 individuals. Fistulae or skeletal lesions caused by odontogenic abscesses drainage, carious lesions, tooth fractures, tooth loss, and alveolar resorption were evaluated visually. RESULTS: Seventy-two specimens (9.57%) had odontogenic abscesses of varying severity. Males had a significantly higher prevalence than females. The prevalence of odontogenic abscesses in several matrilines was significantly higher than in the population as a whole. Animals born between 1950 and 1965 tended to have a higher prevalence of odontogenic abscesses than those born in later periods. DISCUSSION: These results suggest that oral pathologies, such as dental and periodontal abscesses in rhesus macaques are fairly common, which may indicate familial effects interwoven with ecological and social factors. The closeness of the rhesus and human genomes allows insights to understand of the epidemiology of these diseases in the human population. Further assessment of the role played by environmental and familial factors on rhesus oral health and disease are warranted.

Causes of morbidity in captive African lions (Panthera leo) in North America, 2001-2016.

The lion (Panthera leo) is an iconic resident of zoos and wild animal parks throughout the world. Regular assessment of the morbidity of captive lions is necessary to address wellness concerns and improve the healthcare and management of this vulnerable species. In an effort to understand disease morbidity broadly and guide future inquiries into captive lion health, we distributed a questionnaire that emphasized diseases of organ systems rather than individual diagnoses. We sent the questionnaire to 108 American Zoo and Aquarium Association (AZA) institutions housing lions between 2001 and 2016. Fifty-six facilities responded of which 32 responses had usable data for 111 lions. Responses were compiled and analyzed with respect to age, class, and sex. Neoplasia, renal disease, and dental disease were the most common causes of morbidity in these captive lions. Older animals generally experienced a higher prevalence of multiple types of disease. Three cases of hypertrophic cardiomyopathies (HCM) were reported in nearly 40% (3/8) of cardiovascular diseases and 3% (3/111) of disease cases overall, which is the first report of HCM in lions, to the authors' knowledge. There is a relative paucity of literature on lion and large felid cardiovascular conditions, which suggests that this may be an understudied area of lion health. This broad assessment of morbidities present in captive lion populations aimed to identify key areas for further research and screenings. Management priorities of captive lions should include prevention strategies for dental disease and trauma, frequent screening for renal disease and neoplasia, and further research into cardiovascular health.

Dental disorders in brown howler monkeys (Alouatta guariba clamitans) maintained in captivity.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to investigate dental disorders of brown howler monkeys maintained in captivity. The hypothesis is that the identification and diagnosis of the lesions may contribute to control and prevention. METHODS: Sixteen intact brown howler monkeys (Alouatta guariba clamitans), eight females and eight males, weighing from 3.9 to 6.8 kg, were studied. Under general anesthesia, the teeth were evaluated by visual inspection, probing, palpation, and intra-oral radiographic exam. The findings were registered on a dental chart specific for primates. RESULT: Of the 16 monkeys evaluated in the present study, 94% (n = 15) had some type of dental disorder. The lesions observed were dental calculus (88%), dental wear (81%), missing teeth (38%), gingivitis (19%), gingival recession (6%), dental fracture (19%), pulp exposure (19%), and dental staining (25%). CONCLUSIONS: Alouatta guariba clamitans maintained in captivity have a high rate of dental problems.

Dental Disease in Aged Horses and Its Management.

Improved recognition of equine geriatric conditions has resulted in a surge in our aged population with a concurrent escalation of many age-related dental pathologies. Prevention of these disorder is the ultimate aim but early identification and appropriate management can increase an animal's oral comfort and maximise its masticatory ability. There is only a finite amount of tooth available for eruption in the horse and therefore as the teeth become worn and less efficient as a grinding unit, dietary modification becomes a paramount consideration to accommodate this. Geriatric animals have differing requirements for restraint and sedation with treatment of coexisting disorders also an important requirement.

Diets high in fruits and low in gum exudates promote the occurrence and development of dental disease in pygmy slow loris (Nycticebus pygmaeus).

Asian slow lorises are found in zoos and rescue centres worldwide with Nycticebus pygmaeus, the pygmy slow loris, boasting the largest population in captivity. Diet are reportedly high in fruit and concentrates and low in insects and exudates. Wild feeding studies place insects, nectar, and gums as the most important diet components. Captive populations also show high incidences of health afflictions, many of which may be caused by nutrition. Our study, aims at identifying a causative agent within the diets of N. pygmaeus in regards to diseases prominent within captive populations. We sent out 55 diet and health questionnaires to institutions worldwide. Returned diets were nutritionally analyzed. Nutrient values and proportions of each ingredient were used in a principle components analysis. Resulting factors were used as variables in a binary logistic regression (BLR), with dental disease as the dependent variable. 39 questionnaires were returned with a total of 47 diets. 20 (51.7%) institutions reported the presence of diseases with dental issues being prominent. Factors that were significant in the principle components analysis included gum, nectar, protein, acid detergent fibre, calcium, ash, phosphorus, potassium, Ca:P, magnesium, vitamin D, and energy. Gum was the only significant predictor in the BLR. Lastly, a chi square test for association was performed with the presence of dental disease as the dependent variable and the amount of fruit in the diet. The combination of high fruits and little to no gum promotes the occurrence of dental diseases. Current captive diets do not reflect the evolutionary adaptations of Nycticebus primates.

The use of micro-computed tomography in the diagnosis of dental and oral disease in rabbits.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to investigate the use of a newly developed micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) system for the diagnosis of oral pathologies in small animals, using the rabbit as a model. The diagnosis of dental diseases in rabbits is usually based on oral endoscopy and radiographic imaging, but detailed pathological diagnosis using these methods is frequently difficult. Micro-CT was used in this study to address this challenge. RESULTS: This study was conducted using 50 privately owned rabbits, presented to our hospital due to loss of appetite or difficulty feeding. Image recording times were 18 s in normal mode and 120 s in fine mode. The animals were maintained in the required position for scanning via the administration of sedatives. Micro-CT captured with a slice thickness of 60-120 mm has excellent spatial resolution, and is suitable for the clinical diagnosis of dental diseases in rabbits weighing 1-3 kg. CONCLUSIONS: Micro-CT can yield more detailed data than radiography or conventional CT. This study determined that this novel imaging modality can be utilized for the accurate assessment of dental and oral diseases in rabbits.

Dental disease in companion rabbits under UK primary veterinary care: Frequency and risk factors.

BACKGROUND: Some prior evidence has suggested that lop-eared rabbits and those with brachycephalic skull conformations have a higher dental disease risk. This retrospective cohort study reports the frequency and conformational risk factors for primary-care veterinary diagnosis with dental disease in companion rabbits in the UK. METHODS: Anonymised VetCompass clinical records were manually reviewed to confirm dental disease cases. Risk factor analysis used multivariable binary logistic regression modelling. RESULTS: From 161,979 rabbits under primary veterinary care in 2019, the 1-year period prevalence of overall dental disease was 15.36% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 14.78-15.96). The prevalence of dental disease affecting incisors was 3.14% (95% CI: 2.87-3.44), and for cheek teeth it was 13.72% (95% CI: 13.17-14.29). Neither lop-eared conformation nor brachycephalic skull conformation was significantly associated with increased odds of dental disease. Dental disease odds increased as age increased and decreased as bodyweight increased. LIMITATIONS: This study retrospectively accessed clinical records, so breed names may sometimes be imprecise. CONCLUSION: The high overall prevalence of dental disease represents a major welfare concern for all companion rabbits, regardless of conformation. This information can be used to encourage regular routine dental assessment of rabbits of all conformations to promote earlier diagnosis, paying particular attention to older rabbits and those with low bodyweight.

The gold standard of dental care: the geriatric horse.

Changes in normal equine dental anatomy with age result in dental disease specific to the geriatric horse. The culmination of dental disease throughout the life of a horse often results in advanced dental disease. Treatment of specific dental disease conditions has to be adapted for older horses to compensate for reduction in reserve crown and occlusal enamel. Ensuring oral comfort and maximizing masticatory ability are the mainstays of geriatric dental treatment. Recognition of dental disease common to older horses ensures that correct treatment is applied. Older patients often require long-term management changes, such as dietary modification, to manage dental disease effectively.

Oral examination and charting: setting the basis for evidence-based medicine in the oral examination of equids.

The oral examination is performed in equids to assess and monitor oral health status, provide diagnoses, and determine efficacy of treatments. While there is currently insufficient scientific material of adequate quality to enable evidence-based medicine in equine dentistry, this by no means negates the clinician's responsibility to provide oral health care in a scientific and ethical manner. To do so requires that the clinician be knowledgable and skilled in dentistry and general medicine, that each case upholds the principles of scientific method, and that data is gathered and appraised in an objective, precise, consistent, uniform, and reliable manner.

Incorporating oral photography and endoscopy into the equine dental examination.

This article discusses the significant features and use of digital cameras, intraoral cameras, and oral endoscopes in equine dental practice. Although system features believed to be important have been listed, specific system recommendations have been omitted, since each veterinarian must individually determine the best system to meet practice clinical needs and budget. Veterinarians are encouraged to thoroughly research not only the camera/endoscope purchase but also the capabilities of the entire system, the compatibility of the system with different computer software programs, the reputation and service policies of the manufacturers, and references from other colleagues.

The gold standard of dental care: the juvenile horse.

Postpartum evaluation of the foal's head and mouth are performed to detect craniofacial malformations and other congenital defects. Detailed oral examination and diagnostic imaging can provide diagnostic and prognostic information about congenital abnormalities of the mouth or skull. Important abnormalities of foals include wry nose, cleft palate, overbite (parrot mouth), and underbite (monkey mouth, sow mouth). Tumors and cysts can be detected in young horses. In juvenile horses, primary dental care procedures include oral examination, management of sharp enamel points, management of deciduous teeth, and management of wolf teeth. Facial or jaw swellings are also important considerations.

Advances in equine dental radiology.

Although diagnostic images can be obtained with traditional rare-earth film-screen combinations, digital radiography (DR) has enhanced the ability of the general practitioner to obtain diagnostic radiographs of the equine head. With the widespread availability of DR in equine practices, the practitioner can more readily learn the correct positioning for the various projections of the equine head that are used to evaluate the dentition and sinuses. Digital systems provide rapid processing of the image, enabling the practitioner to correct positioning errors and retake the image without significant delay.

Chronic mandibular osteomyelitis associated with a novel probable Kocuria sp in a sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps).

Dental disease in sugar gliders (Petaurus breviceps) is understudied, with only limited clinical and pathological data available. An approximately 7-year-old female sugar glider presented to its primary care veterinarian for a decline in food intake, rapid weight loss and a mass involving the rostral mandible. At necropsy, the mandibular mass effaced most of the rostral mandible and adjacent musculature. Histologically, the mandible was disrupted by nodular infiltrates of variably degenerate neutrophils and macrophages encased in granulomatous inflammation and fibrous connective tissue. Within the neutrophilic cell population were segments of fragmented, necrotic bone and cloud-like colonies of gram-positive cocci. Aerobic culture yielded a heavy, pure growth of a gram-positive coccus morphologically consistent with those identified in the lesions, which was identified as a presumptively novel Kocuria sp by polymerase chain reaction and sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene. This is the first description of Kocuria infection in association with clinically significant pathology in an animal. Although isolated as a pure growth, Kocuria sp cannot be confirmed as the sole cause of lesion formation due to the case chronicity and potential for unculturable, polymicrobial infections. This report adds to our understanding of the clinical and pathological aspects of dental disease in sugar gliders.

A Standard Method for Intraoral Dental Radiography With Dental Photo-Stimulative Phosphor (PSP) Plates in Big Cats.

In recent years, dentistry has steadily gained more prominence in veterinary medicine, including exotic and wild animal medicine. It is known that dental diseases are among the most common diseases in captured big cats. However, so far, there is no standardized method for dental radiography in these animals. Therefore, this study aimed to develop a standardized procedure for the systematic radiographic examination of the teeth in big cats. In total, 34 big cats, including 21 lions and 13 tigers, of different ages were examined. Animals that needed treatment for known dental diseases and those that had to be anesthetized for other medically necessary procedures and dental health status examinations were included. Intraoral dental radiographs were captured with digital imaging plates designed for intraoral dental radiography in horses. Based on the intraoral dental radiography procedures used in domestic cats, both the bisecting angle technique and parallel technique were used. A hemisphere model originally developed for horses was used to describe the path and position of the x-ray beam as accurately as possible. The results demonstrated that it was possible to completely image all the teeth of big cat dentition on seven radiographs using the described method. This method can be used to acquire high-quality intraoral dental radiographs in big cats, aiding in the quick and reliable diagnosis of dental diseases.

Case series: Computed tomography (CT) demonstrates lacrimal canal involvement in koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) with maxillary incisor dental disease.

Dental disease is common in wild and captive koalas. Effective treatments are limited and dental disease may not be recognised until it is quite severe. We describe the appearance of varying severities of dental disease on computed tomography (CT) images in a case series of six koalas. This case series demonstrates the use of CT to detect both mild and severe dental disease in koalas. The study also documents the normal CT appearance of the nasolacrimal duct in the koala. The only clinical abnormality in koalas with the mildest dental disease was ocular discharge. Computed tomography findings associated with ocular discharge were periapical lysis of first maxillary incisors, lacrimal canal remodelling and subsequent nasolacrimal duct obstruction. Dental disease should be a differential diagnosis for ocular discharge in koalas and CT examination enables visualisation of early stages of dental disease.