The origin and evolution of Wnt signalling.

The Wnt signal transduction pathway has essential roles in the formation of the primary body axis during development, cellular differentiation and tissue homeostasis. This animal-specific pathway has been studied extensively in contexts ranging from developmental biology to medicine for more than 40 years. Despite its physiological importance, an understanding of the evolutionary origin and primary function of Wnt signalling has begun to emerge only recently. Recent studies on very basal metazoan species have shown high levels of conservation of components of both canonical and non-canonical Wnt signalling pathways. Furthermore, some pathway proteins have been described also in non-animal species, suggesting that recruitment and functional adaptation of these factors has occurred in metazoans. In this Review, we summarize the current state of research regarding the evolutionary origin of Wnt signalling, its ancestral function and the characteristics of the primal Wnt ligand, with emphasis on the importance of genomic studies in various pre-metazoan and basal metazoan species.

A predatory gastrula leads to symbiosis-independent settlement in Aiptasia.

The planula larvae of the sea anemone Aiptasia have so far not been reported to complete their life cycle by undergoing metamorphosis into adult forms. This has been a major obstacle in their use as a model for coral-dinoflagellate endosymbiosis. Here, we show that Aiptasia larvae actively feed on crustacean nauplii, displaying a preference for live prey. This feeding behavior relies on functional stinging cells, indicative of complex neuronal control. Regular feeding leads to significant size increase, morphological changes, and efficient settlement around 14 d postfertilization. Surprisingly, the presence of dinoflagellate endosymbionts does not affect larval growth or settlement dynamics but is crucial for sexual reproduction. Our findings finally close Aiptasia's life cycle and highlight the functional nature of its larvae, as in Haeckel's Gastrea postulate, yet reveal its active carnivory, thus contributing to our understanding of early metazoan evolution.

Injury-induced MAPK activation triggers body axis formation in Hydra by default Wnt signaling.

Hydra's almost unlimited regenerative potential is based on Wnt signaling, but so far it is unknown how the injury stimulus is transmitted to discrete patterning fates in head and foot regenerates. We previously identified mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) among the earliest injury response molecules in Hydra head regeneration. Here, we show that three MAPKs-p38, c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs), and extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERKs)-are essential to initiate regeneration in Hydra, independent of the wound position. Their activation occurs in response to any injury and requires calcium and reactive oxygen species (ROS) signaling. Phosphorylated MAPKs hereby exhibit cross talk with mutual antagonism between the ERK pathway and stress-induced MAPKs, orchestrating a balance between cell survival and apoptosis. Importantly, Wnt3 and Wnt9/10c, which are induced by MAPK signaling, can partially rescue regeneration in tissues treated with MAPK inhibitors. Also, foot regenerates can be reverted to form head tissue by a pharmacological increase of ß-catenin signaling or the application of recombinant Wnts. We propose a model in which a ß-catenin-based stable gradient of head-forming capacity along the primary body axis, by differentially integrating an indiscriminate injury response, determines the fate of the regenerating tissue. Hereby, Wnt signaling acquires sustained activation in the head regenerate, while it is transient in the presumptive foot tissue. Given the high level of evolutionary conservation of MAPKs and Wnts, we assume that this mechanism is deeply embedded in our genome.

The role of cnidarian developmental biology in unraveling axis formation and Wnt signaling.

Cnidarians are fascinating creatures at the base of metazoan evolution possessing an almost unlimited regeneration capacity that has attracted the interest of researchers, from Abraham Trembley's discovery of regeneration to the present. They share a simple body plan and a high morphogenetic plasticity that has led to a broad spectrum of life cycles. With molecular genomics it became unequivocally clear that Cnidaria are the sister group of the Bilateria and how similar their molecular toolkit is to that of more complex animals. This has renewed interest in these simple animals, which have had an important role in the establishment of fundamental concepts for developmental biologists from the beginning. This review focuses on our current understanding of signaling centers (organizers) and morphogenetic gradients in cnidarians and how they relate to the emergence of the bilaterian body axes. The data are largely based on the cnidarian models Hydra and Nematostella and are supported by new studies on forms with a complete cnidarian life cycle, such as the medusozoans Aurelia and Clytia. Molecular studies on cnidarian development have revealed the existence of an ancient Wnt signaling center at the site of gastrulation, which was instrumental for the formation of a primary body axis and can be traced back to the common ancestor of bilaterian and non-bilaterian animals. New molecular data also suggest that the molecular vectors for the dorso-ventral and left-right body axis in bilaterians, Bmp and Nodal signaling, respectively, were already present but had different fates in the two clades. The close link of developmental processes in bilaterians and cnidarians but also their distinct differences make cnidarians an indispensable model for tackling fundamental questions in developmental biology from patterning, regeneration and other recent molecular approaches to theoretical concepts.

Expansion of a single transposable element family is associated with genome-size increase and radiation in the genus Hydra.

Transposable elements are one of the major contributors to genome-size differences in metazoans. Despite this, relatively little is known about the evolutionary patterns of element expansions and the element families involved. Here we report a broad genomic sampling within the genus Hydra, a freshwater cnidarian at the focal point of diverse research in regeneration, symbiosis, biogeography, and aging. We find that the genome of Hydra is the result of an expansion event involving long interspersed nuclear elements and in particular a single family of the chicken repeat 1 (CR1) class. This expansion is unique to a subgroup of the genus Hydra, the brown hydras, and is absent in the green hydra, which has a repeat landscape similar to that of other cnidarians. These features of the genome make Hydra attractive for studies of transposon-driven genome expansions and speciation.

The Wnt-specific astacin proteinase HAS-7 restricts head organizer formation in Hydra.

BACKGROUND: The Hydra head organizer acts as a signaling center that initiates and maintains the primary body axis in steady state polyps and during budding or regeneration. Wnt/beta-Catenin signaling functions as a primary cue controlling this process, but how Wnt ligand activity is locally restricted at the protein level is poorly understood. Here we report a proteomic analysis of Hydra head tissue leading to the identification of an astacin family proteinase as a Wnt processing factor. RESULTS: Hydra astacin-7 (HAS-7) is expressed from gland cells as an apical-distal gradient in the body column, peaking close beneath the tentacle zone. HAS-7 siRNA knockdown abrogates HyWnt3 proteolysis in the head tissue and induces a robust double axis phenotype, which is rescued by simultaneous HyWnt3 knockdown. Accordingly, double axes are also observed in conditions of increased Wnt activity as in transgenic actin::HyWnt3 and HyDkk1/2/4 siRNA treated animals. HyWnt3-induced double axes in Xenopus embryos could be rescued by coinjection of HAS-7 mRNA. Mathematical modelling combined with experimental promotor analysis indicate an indirect regulation of HAS-7 by beta-Catenin, expanding the classical Turing-type activator-inhibitor model. CONCLUSIONS: We show the astacin family protease HAS-7 maintains a single head organizer through proteolysis of HyWnt3. Our data suggest a negative regulatory function of Wnt processing astacin proteinases in the global patterning of the oral-aboral axis in Hydra.

Nodal signalling determines biradial asymmetry in Hydra.

In bilaterians, three orthogonal body axes define the animal form, with distinct anterior-posterior, dorsal-ventral and left-right asymmetries. The key signalling factors are Wnt family proteins for the anterior-posterior axis, Bmp family proteins for the dorsal-ventral axis and Nodal for the left-right axis. Cnidarians, the sister group to bilaterians, are characterized by one oral-aboral body axis, which exhibits a distinct biradiality of unknown molecular nature. Here we analysed the biradial growth pattern in the radially symmetrical cnidarian polyp Hydra, and we report evidence of Nodal in a pre-bilaterian clade. We identified a Nodal-related gene (Ndr) in Hydra magnipapillata, and this gene is essential for setting up an axial asymmetry along the main body axis. This asymmetry defines a lateral signalling centre, inducing a new body axis of a budding polyp orthogonal to the mother polyp's axis. Ndr is expressed exclusively in the lateral bud anlage and induces Pitx, which encodes an evolutionarily conserved transcription factor that functions downstream of Nodal. Reminiscent of its function in vertebrates, Nodal acts downstream of ß-Catenin signalling. Our data support an evolutionary scenario in which a 'core-signalling cassette' consisting of ß-Catenin, Nodal and Pitx pre-dated the cnidarian-bilaterian split. We presume that this cassette was co-opted for various modes of axial patterning: for example, for lateral branching in cnidarians and left-right patterning in bilaterians.

A Comprehensive Transcriptomic and Proteomic Analysis of Hydra Head Regeneration.

The cnidarian freshwater polyp Hydra sp. exhibits an unparalleled regeneration capacity in the animal kingdom. Using an integrative transcriptomic and stable isotope labeling by amino acids in cell culture proteomic/phosphoproteomic approach, we studied stem cell-based regeneration in Hydra polyps. As major contributors to head regeneration, we identified diverse signaling pathways adopted for the regeneration response as well as enriched novel genes. Our global analysis reveals two distinct molecular cascades: an early injury response and a subsequent, signaling driven patterning of the regenerating tissue. A key factor of the initial injury response is a general stabilization of proteins and a net upregulation of transcripts, which is followed by a subsequent activation cascade of signaling molecules including Wnts and transforming growth factor (TGF) beta-related factors. We observed moderate overlap between the factors contributing to proteomic and transcriptomic responses suggesting a decoupled regulation between the transcriptional and translational levels. Our data also indicate that interstitial stem cells and their derivatives (e.g., neurons) have no major role in Hydra head regeneration. Remarkably, we found an enrichment of evolutionarily more recent genes in the early regeneration response, whereas conserved genes are more enriched in the late phase. In addition, genes specific to the early injury response were enriched in transposon insertions. Genetic dynamicity and taxon-specific factors might therefore play a hitherto underestimated role in Hydra regeneration.

A fast recoiling silk-like elastomer facilitates nanosecond nematocyst discharge.

BACKGROUND: The discharge of the Cnidarian stinging organelle, the nematocyst, is one of the fastest processes in biology and involves volume changes of the highly pressurised (150 bar) capsule of up to 50%. Hitherto, the molecular basis for the unusual biomechanical properties of nematocysts has been elusive, as their structure was mainly defined as a stress-resistant collagenous matrix. RESULTS: Here, we characterise Cnidoin, a novel elastic protein identified as a structural component of Hydra nematocysts. Cnidoin is expressed in nematocytes of all types and immunostainings revealed incorporation into capsule walls and tubules concomitant with minicollagens. Similar to spider silk proteins, to which it is related at sequence level, Cnidoin possesses high elasticity and fast coiling propensity as predicted by molecular dynamics simulations and quantified by force spectroscopy. Recombinant Cnidoin showed a high tendency for spontaneous aggregation to bundles of fibrillar structures. CONCLUSIONS: Cnidoin represents the molecular factor involved in kinetic energy storage and release during the ultra-fast nematocyst discharge. Furthermore, it implies an early evolutionary origin of protein elastomers in basal metazoans.

The comprehensive analysis of DEG/ENaC subunits in Hydra reveals a large variety of peptide-gated channels, potentially involved in neuromuscular transmission.

BACKGROUND: It is generally the case that fast transmission at neural synapses is mediated by small molecule neurotransmitters. The simple nervous system of the cnidarian Hydra, however, contains a large repertoire of neuropeptides and it has been suggested that neuropeptides are the principal transmitters of Hydra. An ion channel directly gated by Hydra-RFamide neuropeptides has indeed been identified in Hydra - the Hydra Na+ channel (HyNaC) 2/3/5, which is expressed at the oral side of the tentacle base. Hydra-RFamides are more widely expressed, however, being found in neurons of the head and peduncle region. Here, we explore whether further peptide-gated HyNaCs exist, where in the animal they are expressed, and whether they are all gated by Hydra-RFamides. RESULTS: We report molecular cloning of seven new HyNaC subunits - HyNaC6 to HyNaC12, all of which are members of the DEG/ENaC gene family. In Xenopus oocytes, these subunits assemble together with the four already known subunits into thirteen different ion channels that are directly gated by Hydra-RFamide neuropeptides with high affinity (up to 40 nM). In situ hybridization suggests that HyNaCs are expressed in epitheliomuscular cells at the oral and the aboral side of the tentacle base and at the peduncle. Moreover, diminazene, an inhibitor of HyNaCs, delayed tentacle movement in live Hydra. CONCLUSIONS: Our results show that Hydra has a large variety of peptide-gated ion channels that are activated by a restricted number of related neuropeptides. The existence and expression pattern of these channels, and behavioral effects induced by channel blockers, suggests that Hydra co-opted neuropeptides for fast neuromuscular transmission.

Molecular dissection of Wnt3a-Frizzled8 interaction reveals essential and modulatory determinants of Wnt signaling activity.

BACKGROUND: Wnt proteins are a family of secreted signaling molecules that regulate key developmental processes in metazoans. The molecular basis of Wnt binding to Frizzled and LRP5/6 co-receptors has long been unknown due to the lack of structural data on Wnt ligands. Only recently, the crystal structure of the Wnt8-Frizzled8-cysteine-rich-domain (CRD) complex was solved, but the significance of interaction sites that influence Wnt signaling has not been assessed. RESULTS: Here, we present an extensive structure-function analysis of mouse Wnt3a in vitro and in vivo. We provide evidence for the essential role of serine 209, glycine 210 (site 1) and tryptophan 333 (site 2) in Fz binding. Importantly, we discovered that valine 337 in the site 2 binding loop is critical for signaling without contributing to binding. Mutations in the presumptive second CRD binding site (site 3) partly abolished Wnt binding. Intriguingly, most site 3 mutations increased Wnt signaling, probably by inhibiting Wnt-CRD oligomerization. In accordance, increasing amounts of soluble Frizzled8-CRD protein modulated Wnt3a signaling in a biphasic manner. CONCLUSIONS: We propose a concentration-dependent switch in Wnt-CRD complex formation from an inactive aggregation state to an activated high mobility state as a possible modulatory mechanism in Wnt signaling gradients.

Autoregulatory and repressive inputs localize Hydra Wnt3 to the head organizer.

Polarized Wnt signaling along the primary body axis is a conserved property of axial patterning in bilaterians and prebilaterians, and depends on localized sources of Wnt ligands. However, the mechanisms governing the localized Wnt expression that emerged early in evolution are poorly understood. Here we find in the cnidarian Hydra that two functionally distinct cis-regulatory elements control the head organizer-associated Hydra Wnt3 (HyWnt3). An autoregulatory element, which mediates direct inputs of Wnt/ß-catenin signaling, highly activates HyWnt3 transcription in the head region. In contrast, a repressor element is necessary and sufficient to restrict the activity of the autoregulatory element, thereby allowing the organizer-specific expression. Our results reveal that a combination of autoregulation and repression is crucial for establishing a Wnt-expressing organizing center in a basal metazoan. We suggest that this transcriptional control is an evolutionarily old strategy in the formation of Wnt signaling centers and metazoan axial patterning.

Hunger and satiety: Neuronal dynamics in Hydra behavior.

Hormonal and neuronal inputs to the brain control how much animals eat. The origins of this behavior were unclear, but in this issue of Cell Reports, Giez et al.1 describe specific neurons inhibiting feeding in evolutionary ancient animals without brain.

The significance of Ethel Browne's research on Hydra for the organizer concept.

This article focuses on the roots of the organizer concept, which was developed by Hans Spemann during his studies of early embryonic development in amphibians. The fundamental properties of this axis-inducing signaling center have been elucidated through pioneering molecular research by Eddy De Robertis' laboratory and other researchers. Evolutionary comparisons have disclosed the presence of this signaling center, involving the interaction of Wnt and TGF-beta signaling pathways, existed not only in vertebrates but also in basal Metazoa such as Cnidaria. - Notably, even prior to the groundbreaking experiments conducted by Hilde Mangold and Hans Spemann, Ethel Browne conducted similar transplantation experiments on Hydra polyps. They were performed under the guidance of Thomas H Morgan and in the laboratory of Edmund B Wilson. Howard Lenhoff was the first to draw connections between Ethel Browne's transplantation experiments and those of Spemann and Mangold, igniting a vivid debate on the precedence of the organizer concept and its recognition in Nobel Prize considerations. This review critically compares the experiments conducted by Spemann and Mangold with those preceding their seminal work, concluding that the organizer concept clearly builds upon earlier research aimed at understanding developmental gradients, such as in the simple model Hydra. However, these approaches were not pursued further by Morgan, who shifted his focus towards unraveling the genetic control of development in flies, an approach that ultimately revealed the molecular identity of the Spemann organizer in vertebrates.

Reversible Host-Guest Crosslinks in Supramolecular Hydrogels for On-Demand Mechanical Stimulation of Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells.

Stem cells are regulated not only by biochemical signals but also by biophysical properties of extracellular matrix (ECM). The ECM is constantly monitored and remodeled because the fate of stem cells can be misdirected when the mechanical interaction between cells and ECM is imbalanced. A well-defined ECM model for bone marrow-derived human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) based on supramolecular hydrogels containing reversible host-guest crosslinks is fabricated. The stiffness (Young's modulus E) of the hydrogels can be switched reversibly by altering the concentration of non-cytotoxic, free guest molecules dissolved in the culture medium. Fine-adjustment of substrate stiffness enables the authors to determine the critical stiffness level E* at which hMSCs turn the mechano-sensory machinery on or off. Next, the substrate stiffness across E* is switched and the dynamic adaptation characteristics such as morphology, traction force, and YAP/TAZ signaling of hMSCs are monitored. These data demonstrate the instantaneous switching of traction force, which is followed by YAP/TAZ signaling and morphological adaptation. Periodical switching of the substrate stiffness across E* proves that frequent applications of mechanical stimuli drastically suppress hMSC proliferation. Mechanical stimulation across E* level using dynamic hydrogels is a promising strategy for the on-demand control of hMSC transcription and proliferation.

A new look at the architecture and dynamics of the Hydra nerve net.

The Hydra nervous system is the paradigm of a 'simple nerve net'. Nerve cells in Hydra, as in many cnidarian polyps, are organized in a nerve net extending throughout the body column. This nerve net is required for control of spontaneous behavior: elimination of nerve cells leads to polyps that do not move and are incapable of capturing and ingesting prey (Campbell, 1976). We have re-examined the structure of the Hydra nerve net by immunostaining fixed polyps with a novel antibody that stains all nerve cells in Hydra. Confocal imaging shows that there are two distinct nerve nets, one in the ectoderm and one in the endoderm, with the unexpected absence of nerve cells in the endoderm of the tentacles. The nerve nets in the ectoderm and endoderm do not contact each other. High-resolution TEM (transmission electron microscopy) and serial block face SEM (scanning electron microscopy) show that the nerve nets consist of bundles of parallel overlapping neurites. Results from transgenic lines show that neurite bundles include different neural circuits and hence that neurites in bundles require circuit-specific recognition. Nerve cell-specific innexins indicate that gap junctions can provide this specificity. The occurrence of bundles of neurites supports a model for continuous growth and differentiation of the nerve net by lateral addition of new nerve cells to the existing net. This model was confirmed by tracking newly differentiated nerve cells.

Subfunctionalization and neofunctionalization of vertebrate Lef/Tcf transcription factors.

Invertebrates express a multitude of Wnt ligands and all Wnt/ß-catenin signaling pathways converge to only one nuclear Lef/Tcf. In vertebrates, however, four distinct Lef/Tcfs, i.e. Tcf-1, Lef, Tcf-3, and Tcf-4 fulfill this function. At present, it is largely unknown to what extent the various Lef/Tcfs are functionally similar or diversified in vertebrates. In particular, it is not known which domains are responsible for the Tcf subtype specific functions. We investigated the conserved and non-conserved functions of the various Tcfs by using Xenopus laevis as a model organism and testing Tcfs from Hydra magnipapillata, Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster. In order to identify domains relevant for the individual properties we created series of chimeric constructs consisting of parts of XTcf-3, XTcf-1 and HyTcf. Rescue experiments in Xenopus morphants revealed that the three invertebrate Tcfs tested compensated the loss of distinct Xenopus Tcfs: Drosophila Tcf (Pangolin) can substitute for the loss of XTcf-1, XTcf-3 and XTcf-4. By comparison, Caenorhabditis Tcf (Pop-1) and Hydra Tcf (HyTcf) can substitute for the loss of only XTcf-3 and XTcf-4, respectively. The domain, which is responsible for subtype specific functions is the regulatory CRD domain. A phylogenetic analysis separates Tcf-1/Lef-1 from the sister group Tcf-3/4 in the vertebrate lineage. We propose that the vertebrate specific diversification of Tcfs in vertebrates resulted in subfunctionalization of a Tcf that already united most of the Lef/Tcf functions.

Proteome of Hydra nematocyst.

Stinging cells or nematocytes of jellyfish and other cnidarians represent one of the most poisonous and sophisticated cellular inventions in animal evolution. This ancient cell type is unique in containing a giant secretory vesicle derived from the Golgi apparatus. The organelle structure within the vesicle comprises an elastically stretched capsule (nematocyst) to which a long tubule is attached. During exocytosis, the barbed part of the tubule is accelerated with >5 million g in <700 ns, enabling a harpoon-like discharge (Nüchter, T., Benoit, M., Engel, U., Ozbek, S., and Holstein, T. W. (2006) Curr. Biol. 16, R316-R318). Hitherto, the molecular components responsible for the organelle's biomechanical properties were largely unknown. Here, we describe the proteome of nematocysts from the freshwater polyp Hydra magnipapillata. Our analysis revealed an unexpectedly complex secretome of 410 proteins with venomous and lytic but also adhesive or fibrous properties. In particular, the insoluble fraction of the nematocyst represents a functional extracellular matrix structure of collagenous and elastic nature. This finding suggests an evolutionary scenario in which exocytic vesicles harboring a venomous secretome assembled a sophisticated predatory structure from extracellular matrix motif proteins.

Nematogalectin, a nematocyst protein with GlyXY and galectin domains, demonstrates nematocyte-specific alternative splicing in Hydra.

Taxonomically restricted genes or lineage-specific genes contribute to morphological diversification in metazoans and provide unique functions for particular taxa in adapting to specific environments. To understand how such genes arise and participate in morphological evolution, we have investigated a gene called nematogalectin in Hydra, which has a structural role in the formation of nematocysts, stinging organelles that are unique to the phylum Cnidaria. Nematogalectin is a 28-kDa protein with an N-terminal GlyXY domain (glycine followed by two hydrophobic amino acids), which can form a collagen triple helix, followed by a galactose-binding lectin domain. Alternative splicing of the nematogalectin transcript allows the gene to encode two proteins, nematogalectin A and nematogalectin B. We demonstrate that expression of nematogalectin A and B is mutually exclusive in different nematocyst types: Desmonemes express nematogalectin B, whereas stenoteles and isorhizas express nematogalectin B early in differentiation, followed by nematogalectin A. Like Hydra, the marine hydrozoan Clytia also has two nematogalectin transcripts, which are expressed in different nematocyte types. By comparison, anthozoans have only one nematogalectin gene. Gene phylogeny indicates that tandem duplication of nematogalectin B exons gave rise to nematogalectin A before the divergence of Anthozoa and Medusozoa and that nematogalectin A was subsequently lost in Anthozoa. The emergence of nematogalectin A may have played a role in the morphological diversification of nematocysts in the medusozoan lineage.