Extensive hepatitis A outbreak in an urban childcare facility in Ireland, associated with considerable adult morbidity.

Hepatitis A infection results in a spectrum of illness from asymptomatic disease to severe fulminant hepatitis. Since 2000, <50 cases have been reported annually in Ireland. We report on an outbreak of hepatitis A associated with a childcare facility(CCF) in 2015 in Ireland. Between January and July 2015, 12 outbreak-associated symptomatic hepatitis A cases were identified, including one delayed, retrospective diagnosis. Seven (58%) cases were adults, eight (67%) were male, six of the adults required hospitalisation. All 12 cases were confirmed on serology and the four cases that were genotyped were identical on phylogenetic analysis. Potential environmental exposures and hygiene practices at the CCF were investigated. Outbreak control measures included the provision of: hepatitis A information, infection prevention advice, hepatitis A vaccination to 554 CCF contacts, and voluntary closure of the CCF for deep-cleaning and staff education. From a healthcare perspective1, outbreak control costs were in excess of €45 000. This outbreak illustrates the considerable adult morbidity that can occur in hepatitis A outbreaks, highlights the challenges in controlling a large CCF-associated outbreak and the importance of early recognition by clinicians of hepatitis A.

Management of fever and neutropenia in children with cancer.

PURPOSE: Febrile neutropenia remains a common, life-threatening complication of chemotherapy in paediatric oncology. Delays in institution of empiric antibiotics have been identified at tertiary and regional centres caring for these patients and associated with decreased survival. Our objective was to reduce the time to administration of empiric antibiotics to less than 60 min from the time of presentation to hospital. METHODS: A retrospective study of the records of oncology patients presenting to the emergency department of a tertiary hospital over a 3-month period was performed and time to first antibiotic administration recorded. Potential causes of delay in commencement of antibiotics were identified and an algorithm-based approach to the management of fever in immunocompromised children developed and implemented. Follow-up evaluation data were collected at 12 and 60 months post-intervention. Causes of delay in commencement of antibiotics at regional hospitals that share care with the tertiary hospital were identified through questionnaires, interviews and focus groups, involving patients and medical and nursing staff. The impact of the introduction of the algorithm at one peripheral hospital was evaluated. RESULTS: The mean time to empiric antibiotics was reduced from 148 min (95% confidence interval (CI) 81-216) at baseline to 76 min (95% CI 50-101) at 12 months post-intervention and sustained at 65 min (95% CI 52-77) 5 years after the intervention. At the peripheral hospital, mean time to antibiotic delivery was reduced from 221 min (95% CI 114-328) to 65 min (95% CI 42-87) at 12 months after the intervention. CONCLUSION: The introduction of the guideline, with teaching and support for staff and parents, resulted in an improvement in practice, meeting international guidelines and achieving sustained results at 5 years after introduction at a tertiary hospital. The guideline has been shown to be feasible and effective at a regional hospital.

Seasonal influenza vaccine uptake in HSE-funded hospitals and nursing homes during the 2011/2012 influenza season.

Annual seasonal influenza vaccine is recommended for all health care workers (HCWs) in Ireland. For the 2011/2012 influenza season, information was collected on influenza vaccination uptake among HCWs employed in Health Service Executive (HSE)-funded hospitals (primarily acute) and of nursing homes (NHs) and also among NH long-term and short-term respite care residents. Forty-five hospitals (80%) and 120 NHs (75%) provided uptake data. Nationally, influenza vaccine uptake among hospital employed HCWs was estimated to be 18% and 14% among HCWs in NHs; in NHs vaccine uptake among long-term care residents was estimated to 88%. These findings highlight the continued low uptake among HCWs of all categories and demonstrate the need for sustained measures to improve uptake rates.

Inner workings and regulatory inputs that control Polycomb repressive complex 2.

Polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2) is a conserved multisubunit enzyme that methylates histone H3 on lysine-27. This chromatin modification is a hallmark of target genes transcriptionally silenced by the Polycomb system. At its core, PRC2 activity depends upon the SET domain active site of its catalytic subunit, EZH2, as well as critical stimulatory inputs from noncatalytic subunits, especially EED and SU(Z)12. We review recent progress on this core PRC2 machinery, including key features of the active site, control mechanisms that operate via EZH2 phosphorylation, and subunit elements and architectures that influence PRC2 function. Among these, we highlight work identifying an EED regulatory site that enables PRC2 to bind pre-existing methylated H3-K27 and stimulate enzyme output. These advances illuminate basic inner workings of PRC2 and also provide insights that could aid design of PRC2 inhibitors. The chromatin landscape that PRC2 encounters in vivo is decorated with many histone modifications that accompany active transcription, such as H3-K4 methylation. It has long been assumed that these "active" modifications oppose PRC2 at some level but, until recently, mechanisms of this antagonistic cross-talk have been elusive. We discuss new findings that illuminate how H3-K4 and H3-K36 methylation, H3-K27 acetylation, and H3-S28 phosphorylation each exert a negative impact on PRC2 function. The emerging picture presents PRC2 as a cooperative multipart machine, intricately outfitted to sense and respond to the local chromatin environment and other cues. This PRC2 design ensures flexibility and fine tuning of its fundamental gene silencing roles in diverse biological contexts.

Caenorhabditis elegans mutant allele identification by whole-genome sequencing.

Identification of the molecular lesion in Caenorhabditis elegans mutants isolated through forward genetic screens usually involves time-consuming genetic mapping. We used Illumina deep sequencing technology to sequence a complete, mutant C. elegans genome and thus pinpointed a single-nucleotide mutation in the genome that affects a neuronal cell fate decision. This constitutes a proof-of-principle for using whole-genome sequencing to analyze C. elegans mutants.

The largest prison outbreak of TB in Western Europe investigated using whole-genome sequencing.

BACKGROUND: In March 2011, the Department of Public Health East in Ireland were notified of two cases of TB in two prisoners sharing a cell. We define the resulting outbreak and highlight the role of public health and laboratory-based molecular epidemiology in mapping and control of a prison outbreak.METHODS: Cases were identified through clinical presentation, contact tracing, case-finding exercise or enhanced laboratory surveillance. Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates were genotyped and underwent whole-genome sequencing (WGS).RESULTS: Of the 34 cases of TB linked to the outbreak, 27 were prisoners (79%), 4 prison officers (12%) and 3 community cases (9%). M. tuberculosis was isolated from 31 cases (culture positivity: 91%). A maximum of six single-nucleotide polymorphisms separated the isolates, with 22 being identical, suggestive of a highly infectious 'super-spreader´ within the prison. Isolates belonged to the Beijing sub-lineage, and were susceptible to first-line anti-TB agents. A case-finding exercise incidentally detected a prisoner with multidrug-resistant TB. Of the 143 prison officers screened, 52% had latent TB infection. Litigation costs exceeded five million euros.CONCLUSION: This constitutes the largest prison outbreak of TB in Western Europe investigated using WGS. A robust prison entry TB screening and education programme is required to effect better TB control, and prevent future outbreaks and attendant litigation.

Cis-regulatory mutations in the Caenorhabditis elegans homeobox gene locus cog-1 affect neuronal development.

We apply here comparative genome hybridization as a novel tool to identify the molecular lesion in two Caenorhabditis elegans mutant strains that affect a neuronal cell fate decision. The phenotype of the mutant strains resembles those of the loss-of-function alleles of the cog-1 homeobox gene, an inducer of the fate of the gustatory neuron ASER. We find that both lesions map to the cis-regulatory control region of cog-1 and affect a phylogenetically conserved binding site for the C2H2 zinc-finger transcription factor CHE-1, a previously known regulator of cog-1 expression in ASER. Identification of this CHE-1-binding site as a critical regulator of cog-1 expression in the ASER in vivo represents one of the rare demonstrations of the in vivo relevance of an experimentally determined or predicted transcription-factor-binding site. Aside from the mutationally defined CHE-1-binding site, cog-1 contains a second, functional CHE-1-binding site, which in isolation is sufficient to drive reporter gene expression in the ASER but in an in vivo context is apparently insufficient for promoting appropriate ASER expression. The cis-regulatory control regions of other ASE-expressed genes also contain ASE motifs that can promote ASE neuron expression when isolated from their genomic context, but appear to depend on multiple ASE motifs in their normal genomic context. The multiplicity of cis-regulatory elements may ensure the robustness of gene expression.

Scoring systems and their possible use in a military ICU setting.

Scoring systems for both trauma and intensive care patients have been widely used since the 1960's. This article will introduce several scoring systems currently in use and discuss their potential use for military ICU patients.

Ensuring a competent public health responder workforce: The CDC experience.

INTRODUCTION: From 2009 to 2016, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) activated its Incident Management System for a public health emergency 91 percent of the time. The CDC must ensure its workforce is prepared for the evolving nature of emergencies. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this assessment was to identify perceived preparedness and response training needs for the CDC responder workforce. METHODS: Between November 2012 and January 2013, focus groups and in-depth interviews were conducted with CDC responders, including senior leaders. The evaluation questions were: (1) How well does the current training system prepare CDC staff to respond to emergency events? (2) What gaps exist in the current training system? and (3) What trainings are essential and should be included in the training system? RESULTS: Eight focus groups were conducted with 51 responders and 18 interviews with response leaders. Themes were identified for each main outcome measure and translated to training improvements. CONCLUSIONS: The CDC workforce received foundational training. Recommendations are provided to better prepare responders during an emergency. Periodic assessments are necessary to expand training and remain responsive to the complexities of emerging threats.

Genetic screens for Caenorhabditis elegans mutants defective in left/right asymmetric neuronal fate specification.

We describe here the results of genetic screens for Caenorhabditis elegans mutants in which a single neuronal fate decision is inappropriately executed. In wild-type animals, the two morphologically bilaterally symmetric gustatory neurons ASE left (ASEL) and ASE right (ASER) undergo a left/right asymmetric diversification in cell fate, manifested by the differential expression of a class of putative chemoreceptors and neuropeptides. Using single cell-specific gfp reporters and screening through a total of almost 120,000 haploid genomes, we isolated 161 mutants that define at least six different classes of mutant phenotypes in which ASEL/R fate is disrupted. Each mutant phenotypic class encompasses one to nine different complementation groups. Besides many alleles of 10 previously described genes, we have identified at least 16 novel "lsy" genes ("laterally symmetric"). Among mutations in known genes, we retrieved four alleles of the miRNA lsy-6 and a gain-of-function mutation in the 3'-UTR of a target of lsy-6, the cog-1 homeobox gene. Using newly found temperature-sensitive alleles of cog-1, we determined that a bistable feedback loop controlling ASEL vs. ASER fate, of which cog-1 is a component, is only transiently required to initiate but not to maintain ASEL and ASER fate. Taken together, our mutant screens identified a broad catalog of genes whose molecular characterization is expected to provide more insight into the complex genetic architecture of a left/right asymmetric neuronal cell fate decision.

The impact of legislation in Ireland on handheld mobile phone use by drivers.

Under the Road Traffic Act, 2006 handheld mobile phone use whilst driving is an offence liable to a fine and penalty points. The aim of this study was to determine whether there has been a change in driver behaviour following the introduction of this legislation. This study found that 2.3% of drivers were still using a handheld mobile phone.

Molecular epidemiology of multi- and extensively-drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Ireland, 2001-2014.

OBJECTIVES: The primary objective of this work was to examine the acquisition and spread of multi-drug resistant (MDR) tuberculosis (TB) in Ireland. METHODS: All available Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) isolates (n = 42), from MDR-TB cases diagnosed in Ireland between 2001 and 2014, were analysed using phenotypic drug-susceptibility testing, Mycobacterial-Interspersed-Repetitive-Units Variable-Number Tandem-Repeat (MIRU-VNTR) genotyping, and whole-genome sequencing (WGS). RESULTS: The lineage distribution of the MDR-TB isolates comprised 54.7% Euro-American, 33.3% East Asian, 7.2% East African Indian, and 4.8% Indo-Oceanic. A significant association was identified between the East Asian Beijing sub-lineage and the relative risk of an isolate being MDR. Over 75% of MDR-TB cases were confirmed in non-Irish born individuals and 7 MIRU-VNTR genotypes were identical to clusters in other European countries indicating cross-border spread of MDR-TB to Ireland. WGS data provided the first evidence in Ireland of in vivo microevolution of MTBC isolates from drug-susceptible to MDR, and from MDR to extensively-drug resistant (XDR). In addition, they found that the katG S315T isoniazid and rpoB S450L rifampicin resistance mutations were dominant across the different MTBC lineages. CONCLUSIONS: Our molecular epidemiological analyses identified the spread of MDR-TB to Ireland from other jurisdictions and its potential to evolve to XDR-TB.

The effectiveness of a military pre-hospital fluid infusion strategy.

We performed a study to assess the effectiveness of a fluid infusion strategy currently used in the military pre-hospital environment using the patient's own body weight as an infusion device. Thirteen healthy volunteers were cannulated and 0.9% sodium chloride infused over a period of ten minutes. The volumes infused were measured and flow rates derived. A mean flow rate of 40 ml per minute was seen through an 18 g cannula. This strategy generates reasonable flow rates, but whether this is sufficient to the clinical aim of fluid resuscitation in pre-hospital settings is unknown.

Molecular epidemiologic investigation of tuberculosis in an area of increasing incidence in inner-city Dublin.

In 2002 the tuberculosis (TB) incidence in Dublin was 13.1 cases per 100,000 persons. In inner city Dublin, the TB incidence was > 20 per 100,000 persons. TB notification rates have remained elevated. The objective of the study is to characterize the population affected in this inner city area and to investigate transmission patterns and potential risk factors for TB disease. This hospital-based molecular epidemiologic study included all culture positive cases of TB between January 1, 1998 and December 31, 2002 from the Mater Misericordiae University Hospital. 142 cases were analyzed. 84 (59%) had clustered Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) isolates, 58 (41%) had unique isolates by molecular typing. There were 13 clusters; the largest two clusters had 26 cases each, one linked to pubs, the other linked through family contact. In multivariate logistic regression analysis, birth in Ireland, pulmonary TB, and younger age were significantly associated with recent transmission. Dublin is a developed city with persistent areas of high rates of TB in the native population. Despite a functioning public health system and lack of predisposing risk factors such as HIV, immigration, and extreme poverty, TB can persist in pockets of the younger, native population.

Contact tracing of tuberculosis in a school setting and the relevance of BCG in this population.

Tuberculosis (TB) remains a worldwide health problem. Treatment, contact tracing and screening of at-risk populations continue to be important issues even in countries with low rates of tuberculosis. In contact tracing, prior BCG vaccination can make interpretation of Mantoux positivity difficult. We had the opportunity to evaluate contacts of a student diagnosed with pulmonary tuberculosis. In the index case's class, 23 of 50 (46%) students screened had TB infection and a further 2 (4%) students had TB disease. Screening was offered to all students in the school (307 students) and 244 students (79%) attended. Students were stratified naturally into classes of ascending age, providing an opportunity to study disease transmission and Mantoux testing in a group who had received BCG at birth. Our findings illustrates that neonatal BCG vaccination has a minimal effect on Mantoux positivity at 12 years and older.

Acute cocaine poisoning. Importance of treating seizures and acidosis.

Cocaine poisoning has increased recently, and survival is rare because of its sudden onset and rapidly fatal course. A patient is described in whom cocaine poisoning developed. This condition was manifest by the findings of acute agitation, diaphoresis, and tachycardia, and was complicated by grand mal seizures, severe respiratory and metabolic acidosis, apnea, and accelerated idioventricular rhythm. After control of the seizures with diazepam and treatment of the acidosis with ventilation and bicarbonate, the ventricular dysrhythmia abated, and the patient made a quick recovery. Recently reported experiments suggest that seizures are a major determinant of lethality in cocaine poisoning. Treatment of the seizures is of prime importance, and correction of the acidosis can normalize cardiac rhythm and function in these critically ill patients.

Tricuspid regurgitation during pregnancy: two-dimensional and pulsed Doppler echocardiographic observations.

Although precordial murmurs occur frequently during pregnancy, their origin is rarely known. To investigate the nature of these murmurs, 2-dimensional (2-D) and pulsed Doppler echocardiography was performed in 81 asymptomatic pregnant women who had new systolic precordial murmurs. End-systolic right atrial dimensions, early diastolic tricuspid anular diameters, and end-diastolic right ventricular diameters were measured from the apical 4-chamber view and compared with measurements from 26 young nonpregnant women without known heart disease. Tricuspid regurgitation (TR) was detected by pulsed Doppler echocardiography in 35 of 81 pregnant women. Thirty-two pregnant women had normal 2-dimensional and pulsed Doppler echocardiographic findings. Other valvular or congenital lesions were detected in 14 pregnant women. The right-sided intracardiac diameters were larger in all groups of pregnant women than in non-pregnant control subjects (p less than 0.001). The tricuspid anular diameter was larger in the pregnant women with TR than in pregnant women with normal pulsed Doppler echocardiographic findings (24 +/- 2 vs 22 +/- 3 mm, p less than 0.015). No patient had clinical difficulty associated with a murmur. Functional TR, therefore, often occurs in pregnancy and appears to be a result of dilation of the tricuspid anulus. TR may contribute to the development of murmurs in pregnant women.

Immunological characteristics in cattle of allergens derived from smooth Brucella abortus S99.

Allergens prepared from a smooth strain of Brucella abortus (S99) were used in an intradermal test for the diagnosis of brucellosis in cattle. The development and testing of the allergen from the initial less purified stages is described. The removal of serological activity noted in some of the earlier preparations can be related to the elimination of molecules of high molecular weight. The final allergen is of a high order of sensitivity and specificity and does not cause production of complement fixing or agglutinating antibodies. Intradermal testing with such an allergen could be a most useful addition to present serological procedures as it could be carried out at the same time as tuberculin testing. As a routine surveillance test, particularly in low prevalence areas, it would eliminate the necessity for extensive blood sampling and in many cases detect the infected herd before serological tests would have become positive.