Heterozygosity for ARID2 loss-of-function mutations in individuals with a Coffin-Siris syndrome-like phenotype.

Chromatin remodeling is a complex process shaping the nucleosome landscape, thereby regulating the accessibility of transcription factors to regulatory regions of target genes and ultimately managing gene expression. The SWI/SNF (switch/sucrose nonfermentable) complex remodels the nucleosome landscape in an ATP-dependent manner and is divided into the two major subclasses Brahma-associated factor (BAF) and Polybromo Brahma-associated factor (PBAF) complex. Somatic mutations in subunits of the SWI/SNF complex have been associated with different cancers, while germline mutations have been associated with autism spectrum disorder and the neurodevelopmental disorders Coffin-Siris (CSS) and Nicolaides-Baraitser syndromes (NCBRS). CSS is characterized by intellectual disability (ID), coarsening of the face and hypoplasia or absence of the fifth finger- and/or toenails. So far, variants in five of the SWI/SNF subunit-encoding genes ARID1B, SMARCA4, SMARCB1, ARID1A, and SMARCE1 as well as variants in the transcription factor-encoding gene SOX11 have been identified in CSS-affected individuals. ARID2 is a member of the PBAF subcomplex, which until recently had not been linked to any neurodevelopmental phenotypes. In 2015, mutations in the ARID2 gene were associated with intellectual disability. In this study, we report on two individuals with private de novo ARID2 frameshift mutations. Both individuals present with a CSS-like phenotype including ID, coarsening of facial features, other recognizable facial dysmorphisms and hypoplasia of the fifth toenails. Hence, this study identifies mutations in the ARID2 gene as a novel and rare cause for a CSS-like phenotype and enlarges the list of CSS-like genes.

Identification of new TRIP12 variants and detailed clinical evaluation of individuals with non-syndromic intellectual disability with or without autism.

The ubiquitin pathway is an enzymatic cascade including activating E1, conjugating E2, and ligating E3 enzymes, which governs protein degradation and sorting. It is crucial for many physiological processes. Compromised function of members of the ubiquitin pathway leads to a wide range of human diseases, such as cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, and neurodevelopmental disorders. Mutations in the thyroid hormone receptor interactor 12 (TRIP12) gene (OMIM 604506), which encodes an E3 ligase in the ubiquitin pathway, have been associated with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). In addition to autistic features, TRIP12 mutation carriers showed intellectual disability (ID). More recently, TRIP12 was postulated as a novel candidate gene for intellectual disability in a meta-analysis of published ID cohorts. However, detailed clinical information characterizing the phenotype of these individuals was not provided. In this study, we present seven novel individuals with private TRIP12 mutations including two splice site mutations, one nonsense mutation, three missense mutations, and one translocation case with a breakpoint in intron 1 of the TRIP12 gene and clinically review four previously published cases. The TRIP12 mutation-positive individuals presented with mild to moderate ID (10/11) or learning disability [intelligence quotient (IQ) 76 in one individual], ASD (8/11) and some of them with unspecific craniofacial dysmorphism and other anomalies. In this study, we provide detailed clinical information of 11 TRIP12 mutation-positive individuals and thereby expand the clinical spectrum of the TRIP12 gene in non-syndromic intellectual disability with or without ASD.

Enhanced G protein activation in immortalized lymphoblasts from patients with essential hypertension.

Epstein-Barr virus-immortalized B lymphoblasts obtained from hypertensive patients with enhanced Na+/H+ exchanger activity (HT cells) proliferate distinctly faster upon serum stimulation than those from normotensive controls with low exchanger activity (NT cells) (Rosskopf, D., E. Frömter, and W. Siffert. 1993. J. Clin. Invest. 92:2553-2559). Stimulation with platelet-activating factor (PAF) as well caused an enhanced proliferation of HT cells. In analyzing possible differences in signal transduction between the immortalized NT and HT lymphoblasts, we observed that cell stimulation with PAF and somatostatin caused a twofold higher increase in [Ca2+]i in HT than in NT cell lines. This difference was completely abrogated by pertussis toxin (PTX) treatment. Furthermore, PAF-stimulated formation of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) was twofold enhanced in HT cell lines. On the other hand, PAF receptor density and affinity, total cellular phospholipase C activity, expression of PTX-sensitive G proteins, and control binding of the stable GTP analogue, guanosine 5'-[gamma-thio]triphosphate (GTP gamma S), to membrane G proteins were not different in NT and HT cell lines. However, PAF- and mastoparan-stimulated binding of GTP gamma S to G proteins, which was fully PTX-sensitive, was 2.5-fold higher in HT than NT cell lines. These data suggest an enhanced receptor-mediated activation of PTX-sensitive G proteins despite unchanged receptor and G protein expression. Thus, this study not only suggests that enhanced signal transduction and cell proliferation are abnormalities in a certain group of patients with essential hypertension but also explains these findings as a result of an enhanced G protein activation in this common disorder.

Gef10--the third member of a Rho-specific guanine nucleotide exchange factor subfamily with unusual protein architecture.

According to cDNA sequence homologies, Gef10 is related to the Rho-specific guanine nucleotide exchange factors GrinchGEF and p164-RhoGEF. Like these GEFs, Gef10 exhibits only weak homology to known pleckstrin homology domains, but contains a putative WD40-like domain. As detected by RT-PCR, Gef10 is transcribed in at least two splice variants in different human tissues. Although the Gef10 sequence contains two putative transmembrane segments, recombinantly expressed Gef10 displays a cytosolic localisation. As detected by guanine nucleotide exchange activity assay, precipitation assay of GTP-bound Rho proteins and serum response element dependent gene transcription Gef10 activates RhoA-C, but not Rac1 or Cdc42. In the reporter gene assay, Gef10 preferentially activated RhoB. When expressed in NIH3T3 cells, Gef10 induced actin stress fibre, but not lamellipodia or filopodia formation. We conclude that Gef10 is the third member of a Rho-specific GEF family with unusual protein architecture.

Interaction of actin with phalloidin: polymerization and stabilization of F-actin.

The cyclic peptide phalloidin, one of the toxic components of Amanita phalloides prevented the drop of viscosity of F-actin solutions after the addition of 0.6 M KI and inhibited the ATP splitting of F-actin during sonic vibration. The data concerning ATP splitting are consistent with the assumption (a) that only 1 out of every 3 actin units of the filaments needs to be combined with phalloidin in order to suppress the contribution of these 3 actins to the ATPase activity of the filament and (b) that all actin units of the filaments can combine with phalloidin with a very high affinity. -halloidin did not only stabilize the actin-actin bonds in the F-actin structure but it also increased the rate of polymerization of G-actin to F-actin. The ability of F-actin to activate myosin ATPase was not affected by phalloidin. The tropomyosin-troponin complex did not prevent the stabilizing effect of phalloidin on the F-actin structure.

A carbene-generating photoaffinity probe for beta-adrenergic receptors.

A new radioiodinated (2.2 Ci/mumol) iodocyanopindolol derivative carrying a 4-(3-trifluoromethyldiazirino)benzoyl residue has been synthesized. The long-wavelength absorption of the diazirine permits formation of the carbene by photolysis under very mild conditions. [125I]ICYP-diazirine binds with high affinity (Kd = 60 pM) to beta-receptors from turkey erythrocyte membranes. Upon irradiation, [125I]ICYP-diazirine is covalently incorporated in a Mr 40 000 protein. Stereoselective inhibition of photolabeling by the (-)enantiomers of alprenolol and isoproterenol indicated that the Mr 40 000 protein contains a beta-adrenergic binding site. The yield of specific labeling was up to 8.2% of total beta-receptor binding sites. The Mr 40 000 protein photolabeled in the membrane could be solubilized at comparable yield with either digitonin or Triton X-100. Irradiation of digitonin-solubilized turkey erythrocyte membranes with [125I]ICYP-diazirine resulted in specific labeling of two proteins with Mr 40 000 and 50 000. In guinea-pig lung membranes, at least five proteins were photolabeled, of which one (with approximately Mr 67 000) was labeled specifically.

Altered guanine nucleoside triphosphate binding to transducin by cholera toxin-catalysed ADP-ribosylation.

The influence of cholera toxin (CTX)-catalysed ADP-ribosylation on binding of guanine nucleoside triphosphates to transducin was studied by measuring the binding of the GTP analogue, guanosine 5'-[gamma-thio]triphosphate (GTP[gamma S]), to illuminated bovine rod outer segment (ROS) membranes treated with or without CTX. Besides the well-documented inhibition of the transducin GTPase activity, CTX treatment inhibited binding of GTP[gamma S] to illuminated ROS membranes. This inhibition was due to an approximately two-fold lower apparent affinity for the nucleotide, while the density of binding sites was not altered. CTX decreased the association rate of GTP[gamma S] by a factor of about two. Competition experiments with GTP, guanosine 5'-[beta, gamma]iminotriphosphate or GDP showed that the apparent affinities for both guanine nucleoside triphosphates, but not for GDP, were lowered by about two-fold upon CTX treatment. In contrast to CTX, pertussis toxin treatment of ROS membranes reduced the density of binding sites available to GTP[gamma S], while the apparent affinity of the remaining sites was unchanged. It is concluded that ADP-ribosylation of transducin by CTX not only inhibits its GTPase activity but also decreases the affinity for guanine nucleoside triphosphates, data which suggest that the arginine moiety modified by CTX is involved in both binding and hydrolysis of GTP.

Receptor-stimulated dissociation of GTP[S] from Gi-proteins in membranes of HL-60 cells.

Formyl peptides stimulate binding of the stable GTP analogue, guanosine 5'-O-[gamma-thio]triphosphate (GTP[S]), to G-proteins in membranes of myeloid differentiated human leukaemia (HL-60) cells. On the other hand, agonist-activated formyl peptide receptors can also cause rapid and substantial release of GTP[S] bound to HL-60 membrane G-proteins. For fMet-Leu-Phe-stimulated dissociation of labelled GTP[S], an additional guanine nucleotide, in the potency order, unlabelled GTP[S] >> GTP >> guanosine 5'-[beta,gamma-imino]triphosphate > or = guanosine 5'-O-[beta-thio]diphosphate > or = GDP > GMP = ATP (no effects at 1 mM), was absolutely necessary. While with unlabelled GTP[S] and GTP similar concentrations were required for control and fMet-Leu-Phe-stimulated release, about 50-100-fold higher concentrations of the other nucleotides were necessary for agonist-stimulated than for basal release of bound GTP[S]. The receptor action appeared to be catalytic, required Mg2+ and was pertussis toxin sensitive. The data indicate that binding of GTP[S] to HL-60 membrane G-proteins is reversible and that agonist-activated formyl peptide receptors can interact, either directly or indirectly, with GTP[S]-liganded Gi-proteins, resulting in release of bound GTP[S].

Receptor-regulated formation of GTP[gamma S] with subsequent persistent Gs-protein activation in membranes of human platelets.

Preincubation of human platelet membranes with the ATP analog ATP[gamma S] led to persistent adenylate cyclase activation. This stimulation was increased by copreincubation with PGE1 and obliterated by removing endogenous GDP by the NTP-regenerating system, creatine phosphate plus creatine kinase. PGE1 partially reversed the action of the regenerating system. Control formation of GTP[gamma S] from ATP[gamma S] and GDP in platelet membranes was apparently not stimulated by PGE1. In contrast, in the presence of creatine phosphate plus creatine kinase, which prevented formation of GTP[gamma S], PGE1 stimulated formation of this GTP analog, by partially reversing the action of the NTP-regenerating system. The data indicate that GTP[gamma S] can be formed by a membrane-associated nucleoside diphosphokinase from ATP[gamma S] and GDP, resulting in persistent Gs-protein activation, and that this process can be stimulated by an agonist-activated receptor.

Interaction of small G proteins with photoexcited rhodopsin.

Bovine rod outer segment (ROS) membranes contain in addition to the heterotrimeric G protein transducin, several small GTP-binding proteins (23-27 kDa). Furthermore, these membranes contain two substrate proteins (about 22 and 24 kDa) for botulinum C3 ADP-ribosyltransferase known to ADP-ribosylate small G proteins in any mammalian cell type studied so far. Most interestingly, [32P]ADP-ribosylation of ROS membrane small G proteins by C3 is regulated by light and guanine nucleotides in a manner similar to pertussis toxin-catalyzed [32P]ADP-ribosylation of the alpha-subunit of transducin. These findings suggest that not only the heterotrimeric G protein transducin but also the C3 substrate small G proteins present in ROS membranes interact with photoexcited rhodopsin and thus contribute to its signalling action.

Interaction of recombinant rho A GTP-binding proteins with photoexcited rhodopsin.

The small molecular mass GTP-binding proteins rho A, B and C are targets for ADP-ribosyltransferase activity of the botulinum exoenzyme C3. The possible interaction of recombinant rho A proteins expressed in E. coli with photoexcited rhodopsin was studied by reconstitution with bovine rod outer segment (ROS) membranes depleted of endogenous GTP-binding proteins by treatment with urea. As reported for C3 substrates present in untreated ROS membranes, ADP-ribosylation of recombinant rho A proteins, both normal and Val-14 mutant, by C3 was inhibited when reconstituted with illuminated compared to dark-adapted ROS membranes pretreated with urea. GDP reduced the light-induced inhibition, while GTP[S] and light inhibited ADP-ribosylation of rho A proteins in a synergistic manner.

Immunosuppressive activity in the series of cycloamanide peptides from mushrooms.

The immunosuppressor activity of the cycloamanides A, B, C, and D, and two of their D-amino acid residue-containing analogues, was examined using PFC (plaque forming cell) and DTH (delayed type hypersensitivity) tests. It was found that cycloamanide A (CyA A, II) [c-(Phe-Phe-Ala-Gly-Pro-Val-)] and its D-Phe-containing analogue III [c-(Phe-D-Phe-Ala-Gly-Pro-Val-)] are the most potent immunosuppressors of the whole series. The retroanalogue of III [c-(D-Phe-Val-Pro-Gly-Ala-)] was found to be less active than III. The immunosuppressor activity of O-carboxymethyl-Tyr6-antamanide (I) was also tested. It was found that the substitution of one of the Phe residues of ANT by O-carboxymethyl-Tyr does not substantially affect the immunosuppressor activity.

Cytoskeletal inhibitors impair Ca2+ elevations via neuropeptide Y and other Gi-coupled receptors.

Neuropeptide Y, alpha 2-adrenoceptors, thrombin and certain muscarinic acetylcholine receptors can couple to elevations of intracellular free Ca2+ concentrations via Gi-proteins. We have studied the effects of inhibitors of microtubules (colchicine, nocodazole, vinblastine) and microfilaments (cytochalasin B, cytochalasin D) on these effects in human erythroleukemia (HEL) cells. Both types of inhibitors reduced neuropeptide Y-, adrenaline- (via alpha 2A-adrenoceptors) and thrombin-stimulated Ca2+ elevations while the inactive analog beta-lumicolchicine was without inhibitory effects. Similarly, in SK-N-MC cells vinblastine inhibited neuropeptide Y and carbachol (via muscarinic receptors) stimulated Ca2+ elevations. In HEL cells the inhibitory effects of the microfilament inhibitor cytochalasin D and the microtubule inhibitor colchicine were not additive. Colchicine, nocodazole or cytochalasin D did not affect the binding of the agonist neuropeptide Y. On the other hand, neuropeptide Y and thrombin significantly stimulated GTP gamma S binding in the absence but not in the presence of colchicine, vinblastine or cytochalasin B. This was not due to sequestration of G-protein alpha-subunits, since nocodazole did not affect the distribution of immunodetectable Gi alpha 1/2 or Gi alpha 3 between membrane and cytosolic fractions. We conclude that disruption of microfilaments or microtubules impairs Ca2+ elevations by neuropeptide Y and other Gi-coupled receptors by inhibiting receptor/Gi-protein interaction; this does not involve impairment of agonist binding to the receptor or redistribution of Gi-protein alpha-subunits.

Antamanide antagonizes the phalloidin-induced negative inotropic effect and blocks voltage dependently the fast outward K+ current in voltage-clamped frog muscle fibres.

The effects of antamanide (10(-14)-10(-5) M) and N-acetyl-secophalloidin (10(-7)-5 X 10(-3) M) a neutral non-toxic derivative of phalloidin, were tested on voltage-clamped single frog muscle fibres. Antamanide protected muscle fibres against the negative inotropic effect of phalloidin but blocked the fast potassium permeability in the same concentration range and the same voltage-dependent manner as did phalloidin. N-Acetyl-secophalloidin exhibited a strongly attenuated blocking effect on K+ permeability in a 1,000-fold higher concentration range than phalloidin. Neither antamanide nor N-acetyl-secophalloidin affected the contractile properties. These results suggest the existence in the frog muscle membrane of a receptor with two sites for phalloidin and antamanide which acts on potassium conductance.

Contribution of nucleoside diphosphokinase to guanine nucleotide regulation of agonist binding to formyl peptide receptors.

High-affinity agonist binding to formyl peptide receptors in membranes of myeloid differentiated human leukemia (HL 60) cells is known to be regulated by guanine nucleotides, most potently by the GTP analog, guanosine-5'-O-(3-thiotriphosphate) (GTP[S]). Here we analyzed whether nucleoside diphosphokinase present in these membranes and capable of forming GTP[S] from GDP and adenosine-5'-O-(3-thiotriphosphate) (ATP[S]) can contribute to nucleotide regulation of agonist receptor binding. Using GDP and ATP[S] at concentrations causing by themselves only small reductions in receptor binding of the labelled formyl peptide, N-formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine ([3H]FMLP), a marked potentiation (up to 30-fold) was observed when both nucleotides were combined. Under conditions in which the combination of GDP and ATP[S] induced 70-90% of maximal inhibition of [3H]FMLP binding, a total concentration of about 7 nM GTP[S] formed was measured. The synergistic effect of GDP and ATP[S] on [3H]FMLP binding was not seen in the presence of UDP (1 mM), which blocked formation of GTP[S] from GDP and ATP[S]. Furthermore, no potentiation was observed when instead of GDP and ATP[S], guanosine-5'-O-(2-thiodiphosphate) and adenylyl-5'-imidodiphosphate, respectively, were used. Finally, regulation of [3H]FMLP binding by ATP[S] plus GDP (or GTP) was a time-dependent process, reaching maximal inhibition after 20-30 min of incubation at 25 degrees C. The data indicate that nucleoside diphosphokinase present in membranes of HL 60 cells can transfer the thiophosphate group of ATP[S] to GDP leading to formation of GTP[S] and that the GTP[S] thus formed efficiently binds to G proteins interacting with formyl peptide receptors and thereby regulates their agonist binding affinity.

Molecular characterization and module composition of P22-related Salmonella phage genomes.

Genomes of newly isolated Salmonella phages were analysed by comparison of their EcoRI restriction patterns and by hybridization. Characteristic hybridization probes from reference phages P22, ES18 and E. coli phage lambda were chosen. Four probes selected from the lysis region examined the dispersal of the lambdoid lysis genes. Other probes characterized were the replication genes and part of the structural genes. The complex immunity region was investigated by means of hybridization as well as biological tests. The results showed the relationship of the isolated phages to the P22 branch of the lambdoid phages and revealed their modular genome organization consisting of different proportions of P22-related sequences. DNA restriction patterns of phages released from Salmonella strains sampled in limited geographical areas were significantly less heterogeneous than those of phages released from the worldwide sampled SARA collection. The use of prophage restriction patterns as a tool for the typing of Salmonellae to support the epidemiologic classification of pathogenic strains is discussed.

Regulators of G-protein signalling: a novel protein family involved in timely deactivation and desensitization of signalling via heterotrimeric G proteins.

In a variety of signalling pathways heterotrimeric guanine-nucleotide-binding proteins (G proteins) trigger physiological responses elicited by hormones, neurotransmitters and sensory stimuli. Receptor-induced GDP/GTP exchange activates G proteins by dissociating G-protein alpha-subunits from the betagamma-dimers. Both alpha-subunits and betagamma-dimers are involved in effector regulation. The deactivation of these active forms is controlled by the hydrolysis of GTP bound to alpha-subunits, allowing the inactive heterotrimer to reform. Termination of G-protein-mediated signalling in vivo is 10- to 100-fold faster than the in vitro rate of GTP hydrolysis by alpha-subunits, suggesting that in analogy to the GTPases of the Ras-superfamily, GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs) are required to achieve timely deactivation. Recently, members of a novel protein superfamily, known as "regulators of G-protein signalling" (RGS), were identified as potent GAPs for at least one subset of heterotrimeric G-protein alpha-subunits. In this review, we intend to discuss the proposed mechanism by which RGS proteins exert GAP activity for G-protein alpha-subunits as well as their specificities. The role of RGS proteins in desensitization and temporal resolution in certain signalling pathways will also be addressed.

G protein-mediated receptor-receptor interaction: studies with chemotactic receptors in membranes of human leukemia (HL 60) cells.

Differentiated human leukemia (HL 60) cells contain high numbers of receptors for the chemotactic factors, N-formylmethionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (fMet-Leu-Phe) and complement component 5a (C5a), both coupled to pertussis toxin-sensitive guanine nucleotide-binding regulatory proteins (G proteins). Agonist activation of either receptor stimulated binding of the GTP analog, guanosine 5'-[gamma-thio]triphosphate (GTP[S]), to membrane G proteins and by a similar extent in a non-additive manner. The possible interaction of the two receptors was studied by measuring agonist binding to one receptor in the presence of the other receptor agonist. fMet-Leu-Phe and C5a had no effects on [125I]C5a and fMet-Leu-[3H]Phe receptor binding, respectively, when studied in the absence of regulatory ligands. Similarly, the inhibitory effects of NaCl and GDP on agonist receptor binding were not altered in the presence of the other receptor agonist. In contrast, in the presence of the GTP analogs, GTP[S] and guanosine 5'-[beta,gamma-imino] triphosphate, fMet-Leu-Phe and C5a reduced the binding of [125I]C5a and fMet-Leu-[3H]Phe, respectively, in a concentration-dependent manner. The potencies of the GTP analogs to inhibit binding of [125I]C5a and fMet-Leu-[3H]Phe was increased about 3-fold by fMet-Leu-Phe and C5a, respectively. The data presented suggest that fMet-Leu-Phe and C5a receptors share the same G protein pool in membranes of HL 60 cells and that activation of these G proteins by one of the two receptors decreases the availability of G proteins for the other receptor.

Phalloidin uptake by the liver of cholestatic rats in vivo, in isolated perfused liver and isolated hepatocytes.

Rats made cholestatic by bile duct ligation survive phalloidin poisoning. This protection against phalloidin poisoning is correlated with the rate of the toxin uptake by the liver. [3H]demethylphalloin was used as a tracer for uptake studies. This is justified because there is no significant difference in the rate of uptake of the phallotoxins used. Within 4 h after bile duct ligation phalloidin uptake is reduced to about 25% and after 24 h to about 15% of controls. Isolated perfused livers and isolated hepatocytes from cholestatic rats bind less phalloidin than normal controls. Besides morphological changes serum factors may account for the decreased rate of phallotoxin uptake in cholestatic cells.