Infant iodine status and associations with maternal iodine nutrition, breast-feeding status and thyroid function.

Adequate iodine nutrition during infancy is required for normal thyroid function and, subsequently, brain development. However, data on infant iodine status in the first year of life are scarce. This study aimed to describe infant iodine status and further explore its associations with maternal iodine nutrition, breast-feeding status and thyroid function. In this cohort study, 113 infants were followed up at ages 3, 6 and 11 months in Norway. Infant and maternal urinary iodine concentration (UIC), maternal iodine intake, breast milk iodine concentration (BMIC), breast-feeding status and infant thyroid function tests were measured. The median infant UIC was 82 µg/l at the age of 3 months and below the WHO cut-off of 100 µg/l. Infant UIC was adequate later in infancy (median 110 µg/l at ages 6 and 11 months). Infant UIC was associated positively with maternal UIC (ß = 0·33, 95 % CI (0·12, 0·54)), maternal iodine intake (ß = 0·30, 95 % CI (0·18, 0·42)) and BMIC (ß = 0·46, 95 % CI (0·13, 0·79)). Breastfed infants had lower median UIC compared with formula-fed infants at ages 3 months (76 v. 190 µg/l) and 6 months (105 v. 315 µg/l). Neither infant UIC nor BMIC were associated with infant thyroid function tests. In conclusion, breastfed infants in Norway are at risk of insufficient iodine intake during the first months of life. Maternal iodine nutrition is important for providing sufficient iodine intake in infants, and awareness of promoting adequate iodine nutrition for lactating women should be prioritised.

Thyroid function and urinary concentrations of iodine, selenium, and arsenic in vegans, lacto-ovo vegetarians and pescatarians.

PURPOSE: Populations following a plant-based diet may be at particular risk of thyroid dysfunction due to low iodine and selenium intakes. The main purpose was to assess thyroid function and urinary concentration of iodine, selenium, and arsenic, in subjects following a vegan, lacto-ovo vegetarian, or pescatarian diet. METHODS: In Norway, a country without mandatory dietary iodine fortification, 205 adults, following vegan (n = 115), lacto-ovo vegetarian (n = 55) and pescatarian diet (n = 35) were included. Thyroglobulin (Tg), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), free triiodothyronine (fT3), free thyroxine (fT4), and serum anti-TPO (S-anti-TPO) were measured in a venous blood sample and concentrations of iodine (UIC), creatinine (UCC), selenium, and arsenic were measured from single spot urine samples. RESULTS: Subclinical hypothyroidism (TSH > 4.0 mU/L) was observed in 3% of subjects. The overall median (p25, p75) Tg was 17 (9, 30) µg/L and vegans had higher Tg compared to pescatarians. Vegans not consuming iodine-containing supplements (n = 43) had higher Tg, than supplement users (n = 72), 27 (11, 44) vs. 16 (8, 25) µg/L and higher fT4, 16 (15, 17) vs. 15 (14, 17) pmol/L, respectively. The overall median UIC was 57 (28, 130) µg/L, all dietary groups had median UIC below WHO thresholds. Median urinary selenium and arsenic concentration was 13 (6, 22) and 3 (2, 8) µg/L, respectively. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of subclinical hypothyroidism was low and fT4 and fT3 were within the normal range for all dietary groups. Vegans had significantly increased Tg compared to pescatarians.

Iodine from brown algae in human nutrition, with an emphasis on bioaccessibility, bioavailability, chemistry, and effects of processing: A systematic review.

Brown algae are becoming increasingly popular as a food source and dietary supplement in Europe and other Western countries. As they are highly rich in iodine, they represent a potential new dietary iodine source. Iodine deficiency has been re-emerging in Europe, and it is important to ensure adequate intake through one's diet. However, macroalgae, and especially brown algae, may contain very high amounts of iodine, and both iodine deficiency and excessive iodine may increase the risk of negative health effects. The iodine content of algae or foods containing algae is currently not regulated in the European Union. The aim of this paper is to review the literature to determine the chemical species of iodine in brown algae, the loss of iodine during processing, and the bioavailability and bioaccessibility of iodine. A systematic search of the literature was performed in April 2021, via the databases Web of Science and PubMed. The review includes studies of iodine in brown macroalgae in relation to bioavailability, bioaccessibility, processing and speciation. A meta-analysis was conducted in relation to the following topics: (i) the correlation between total iodine and iodide (I- ) content in brown algae; (ii) the correlation between the loss of iodine during processing and the I- content; and (iii) the correlation between bioavailability and the I- content. The bioavailability of iodine from brown algae was generally high, with in vivo bioavailability ranging from 31% to 90%. The in vitro bioavailability of iodine (2%-28%) was systematically lower than in vivo bioavailability (31%-90%), indicating an inadequate in vitro methodology. Processing may reduce the iodine content of brown algae, and a higher I- content was positively correlated with increased iodine loss during processing. Although processing strategies may reduce the iodine content of brown algae significantly, the iodine content may still be high after processing. These findings may be used in food safety evaluations of brown algae as well as in the development of macroalgae-containing foods with iodine contents suitable for human consumption. Further research on processing techniques to reduce the iodine content in brown macroalgae are warranted.

Iodine Nutrition and Iodine Supplement Initiation in Association with Thyroid Function in Mildly-to-Moderately Iodine-Deficient Pregnant and Postpartum Women.

BACKGROUND: Whereas the adverse effects of severe iodine deficiency during pregnancy are well documented, the effects of mild-to-moderate deficiency are not well established. OBJECTIVES: We aimed to explore whether iodine nutrition and timing of iodine supplement initiation are associated with thyroid function in pregnant and postpartum women. METHODS: In this cohort study, 137 pregnant women were enrolled and followed up at gestational weeks (GWs) 18 and 36, and 3 and 6 mo postpartum. Thyroid function tests [thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), free triiodothyronine (fT3), and free thyroxine (fT4)], urinary iodine and creatinine concentration (UIC:Cr), and iodine intake (including iodine supplement use) were measured at each time point. The associations between thyroid hormone concentrations and UIC:Cr, iodine intakes, and iodine supplement use were estimated using multiple generalized estimating equation models. RESULTS: The median UIC at GW18 was 94 µg/L, indicating mild-to-moderate iodine deficiency. UIC:Cr (ß; 95% CI) per 100 µg/g was negatively associated with fT3 (-0.191; -0.331, -0.051) and fT4 (-0.756; -1.372, -0.141) concentrations. Iodine intake (ß; 95% CI) per 100 µg/d was positively associated with TSH (0.099; 0.022, 0.177), and negatively associated with fT3 (-0.084; -0.0141, -0.027) and fT4 (-0.390; -0.599, -0.182) concentrations. Compared with no use of supplement, those initiating an iodine-containing supplement prepregnancy and continuing through pregnancy had lower TSH (estimated means) (1.35 compared with 1.68 mIU/L, P = 0.021), and higher fT3 (4.48 compared with 4.28 pmol/L, P = 0.035) and fT4 (15.2 compared with 14.4 pmol/L, P = 0.024) concentrations. CONCLUSIONS: Lower iodine availability during pregnancy and postpartum was associated with lower TSH, and higher fT3 and fT4 concentrations. The use of an iodine-containing supplement that was initiated prepregnancy and continuing through pregnancy was associated with lower TSH, and higher fT3 and fT4 concentrations, which may suggest improved thyroid function. These findings support the notion that optimization of iodine intake should start before pregnancy.This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02610959.

Iodine status during pregnancy and at 6 weeks, 6, 12 and 18 months post-partum.

Iodine deficiency during pregnancy and in the post-partum period may lead to impaired child development. Our aim is to describe iodine status longitudinally in women from pregnancy until 18 months post-partum. Furthermore, we explore whether iodine status is associated with dietary intake, iodine-containing supplement use and breastfeeding status from pregnancy until 18 months post-partum. We also assess the correlation between maternal iodine status 18 months post-partum and child iodine status at 18 months of age. Iodine status was measured by urinary iodine concentration (UIC) during pregnancy (n = 1,004), 6 weeks post-partum (n = 915), 6 months post-partum (n = 849), 12 months post-partum (n = 733) and 18 months post-partum (n = 714). The toddlers' UIC was assessed at 18 months of age (n = 416). Demographic variables and dietary data (food frequency questionnaire) were collected during pregnancy, and dietary data and breastfeeding practices were collected at all time points post-partum. We found that iodine status was insufficient in both pregnant and post-partum women. The UIC was at its lowermost 6 weeks post-partum and gradually improved with increasing time post-partum. Intake of milk and use of iodine-containing supplements significantly increased the odds of having a UIC above 100 µg/L. Neither the mothers' UIC, vegetarian practice, nor exclusion of milk and dairy products were associated with the toddlers UIC 18 months post-partum. Women who exclude milk and dairy products from their diets and/or do not use iodine-containing supplements may be at risk of iodine deficiency. The women possibly also have an increased risk of thyroid dysfunction and for conceiving children with nonoptimal developmental status.

Validation and reproducibility of a new iodine specific food frequency questionnaire for assessing iodine intake in Norwegian pregnant women.

BACKGROUND: Iodized salt is not mandatory in Norway, and the permitted level of iodine in table salt is low (5 µg/g). Thus, milk and dairy products, fish and eggs are the main dietary sources of iodine in Norway. Mild-to-moderate iodine deficiency in pregnant women has been described in several European countries, including Norway. There are few validated tools available to assess iodine intake in an efficient manner. The aim of the current study was to assess the validity and reproducibility of a new iodine-specific food frequency questionnaire (I-FFQ) in Norwegian pregnant women. METHODS: An I-FFQ consisting of a total of 60 food items and the use of supplements was developed to assess iodine intake and was administrated to 137 pregnant women at gestational week 18-19. Reference methods were a structured 6-days iodine specific food diary, urinary iodine concentration (UIC) (pooled sample of spot UIC from six consecutive days), and thyroid function tests. Correlation analyses, Cohen's weighted kappa, Bland-Altman plots, and linear regression analyses were used to assess validity. Reproducibility of the I-FFQ was assessed in a subgroup (n = 47) at gestational week 35-36. RESULTS: There was a strong correlation between estimated iodine intake from the I-FFQ and food diary (r = 0.62, P < 0.001) and an acceptable correlation between the I-FFQ and UIC (r = 0.21, P = 0.018). There was no significant association between the I-FFQ and thyroid function tests. The I-FFQ estimated higher iodine intake compared to the food diary with a mean absolute difference 33 µg/day. The limits of agreement from the Bland-Altman plots were large, however few participants fell outside the limits of agreement (5.2-6.5%). There was no difference between the estimated iodine intake from the I-FFQ assessed at gestational week 18-19, and gestational week 35-36 (P = 0.866), and there was a strong correlation between the two time points (r = 0.63, P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: In summary, this study suggests that the I-FFQ can be used as a valid tool to estimate and rank iodine intake among Norwegian pregnant women. We further suggest that this I-FFQ may also be valid in other populations with similarly dietary patterns and where salt is not iodized. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The study is registered in ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT02610959).

Comparison of a digital iodine-specific dietary screener with 24-hour recall and urinary iodine concentration.

Mild-to-moderate iodine deficiency remains a problem worldwide, including in Norway. Of particular, concern is fertile, pregnant and lactating women. The Norwegian Dairy Council developed a digital iodine-specific dietary screener (I-screener) for the assessment of iodine intake levels but has yet to be validated. The aim was thus to investigate the relative validity of the I-screener by comparing estimates of iodine intake from the I-screener against a single 24-hour recall (24HR) and urinary iodine concentration (UIC) in fertile women. Healthy females were recruited in Bergen in August-December 2021. Six spot-urine samples from six consecutive days were collected into a pooled sample to assess UIC. Each participant completed a single administration of the I-screener and the 24HR. The estimated daily iodine intake from the I-screener was compared with the estimations from the 24HR and UIC. Seventy-two women aged 19-39 completed the study. The median UIC was 76 µg/l. Compared with the 24HR, the I-screener placed 83 % of the participants in the same/adjacent tertial, with a slight agreement between the methods (Cohen's kappa = 0⋅187). The present study shows an acceptable correlation between the I-screener and the 24HR (r = 0⋅318), but not between the I-screener and UIC (r = 0⋅122). Despite its varying iodine estimate abilities, the I-screener may be used as an initial screening tool to rank fertile women on an individual level into deficient inadequate, and sufficient iodine intake. However, due to the relatively high risk of misclassification, further assessment of iodine status should follow.

Bioavailability of iodine from a meal consisting of sushi and a wakame seaweed salad-A randomized crossover trial.

The consumption of seaweed is on the rise in the Western world. Seaweeds may contain substantial amounts of iodine, and some species could serve as a potential dietary iodine source. However, limited data on the iodine content and in vivo bioavailability of iodine from seaweeds exist. The objective was to assess whether iodine from a meal consisting of sushi with nori, (Porphyra spp) and a wakame seaweed salad (Undaria pinnatifida) had similar bioavailability as a potassium iodide reference supplement of similar iodine content. A randomized 2 × 2 crossover trial (AB/BA model) was conducted in 20 healthy young women. One intervention arm consisted of a meal with sushi and wakame salad (231 µg iodine), and the other of potassium iodide (KI) supplement (225 µg iodine). Urinary iodine concentration (UIC) was measured at 11 different time points for 48 h after the interventions. The UIC increased after consumption of both the sushi and wakame meal and the KI supplement, but the median UIC was higher after ingestion of the KI supplement. The estimated bioavailability of iodine during the first 24 h was 75% from sushi with wakame and 97% from the KI supplement. The bioequivalence analyses confirmed that the KI supplement had higher estimated bioavailability than the sushi and wakame meal, however, with small margins. Our findings on iodine bioavailability imply that sushi and wakame could be potential iodine sources in the diet, which may be favorable for population groups at risk for iodine deficiency. However, further research is needed to account for the variability of iodine content in seaweeds by different locations and degree of processing, to assure that the iodine levels are stable and predictable for the consumers.

Life-course perspectives of milk consumption among young Norwegian women and their knowledge of milk as a source of iodine: a qualitative study.

Mild to moderate iodine deficiency has been found among young Norwegian women of reproductive age. In Norway, cow's milk is the main source of iodine; however, milk consumption is decreasing, particularly among young women. This study aimed to investigate milk consumption practices in young Norwegian women and their attitudes toward milk consumption from childhood to young adulthood in a life-course perspective and their knowledge of milk as a source of iodine. Convenience sampling was used to recruit 30 bachelor students (women, 18-25 years old) from five different study programs. Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) was used to interpret milk consumption practices from a life-course perspective. Five focus group interviews were conducted using a semistructured interview guide. The transcribed interviews were coded according to emerging themes related to milk consumption practices and turning points. Milk consumption practices were dynamic and changed over time and were influenced by several factors: family traditions, school milk subscription, friends and social media, social acceptance, availability, price, and attitudes toward health and the environment. Young women tend to be in a phase of life in which milk is not part of their food practices. Most of the women were not aware of the consequences of omitting milk from their diet and had limited knowledge of iodine and how to secure adequate dietary iodine intake. Awareness of possible consequences of omitting milk from the diet should be promoted along with information on how to secure adequate iodine intake.

Corrigendum to ''Sampling protocol for the determination of nutrients and contaminants in fish and other seafood - The EAF-Nansen programme" [MethodsX 7 (2020) 101063].

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1016/j.mex.2020.101063.].

Effects of Two Weekly Servings of Cod for 16 Weeks in Pregnancy on Maternal Iodine Status and Infant Neurodevelopment: Mommy's Food, a Randomized-Controlled Trial.

Background: Mild-to-moderate iodine deficiency is still present in many countries, particularly in pregnant women. Observational studies suggest that mild-to-moderate iodine deficiency during pregnancy may be associated with impaired thyroid function and child neurodevelopment. Randomized-controlled food trials to increase iodine status are scarce. We assessed the impact of an increased intake of cod during pregnancy on maternal iodine status and infant neurodevelopment. Methods: In this randomized-controlled trial, pregnant women in Bergen, Norway, recruited through Haukeland University Hospital, were randomly assigned (1:1) to an intervention of 200 g of cod twice a week for 16 weeks (gestational week 20-36) or to continue with their standard diet (control group). Randomization was done by lottery. Primary outcome was urinary iodine concentration (UIC) (spot samples from six consecutive days) measured postintervention. Secondary outcome was infant neurodevelopment assessed by the cognitive, language, and motor scales of the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Developmental third edition (Bayley-III) at 11 months of age. In addition, maternal thyroid function was measured (thyrotropin [TSH], free triiodothyronine [fT3], free thyroxine [fT4]) at baseline and postintervention. Results: Between January 2016 until February 2017, 137 women were recruited. Postintervention UIC was higher in the intervention group (n = 61) [median (interquartile range, IQR) 98 (64-145) µg/L], compared with control (n = 61) [median (IQR) 73 (52-120) µg/L] (p = 0.028), also after adjusting for baseline UIC (p = 0.048). Infants of mothers in the intervention group had a lower cognitive composite score on the Bayley-III compared with the control group (p = 0.045). There were no group differences in the Bayley III language- or motor composite scores. Maternal thyroid hormones (TSH, fT3, fT4) did not differ between the groups postintervention. Conclusions: Increased cod intake during pregnancy improved the iodine status in women with mild-to-moderate iodine deficiency, however, did not affect thyroid function. The negative effect on cognition should be followed up to assess whether this is a stable effect over time. More studies are warranted to enable good health advice on iodine nutrition in pregnancy. ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02610959. Registered November 20, 2015.

Metal Contents in Fish from the Bay of Bengal and Potential Consumer Exposure-The EAF-Nansen Programme.

Fish represent an important part of the Sri Lankan and Bangladeshi diet. However, fish is also a source of contaminants that may constitute a health risk to consumers. The aim of this study was to analyse the contents of arsenic, cadmium, mercury, and lead in 24 commonly consumed marine fish species from the Bay of Bengal and to assess the potential health risk associated with their consumption. Mercury and lead contents did not exceed the maximum limits for any of the sampled species, and consumer exposure from estimated daily consumption was assessed to be minimal for adults and children. Numerous samples exceeded the maximum limit for cadmium (58%), particularly those of small size (≤25 cm). However, consumer exposure was insignificant, and health assessment showed no risk connected to consumption. These data represent an important contribution to future risk/benefit assessments related to the consumption of fish.

Commercially available kelp and seaweed products - valuable iodine source or risk of excess intake?

BACKGROUND: Seaweeds and kelps, also known as macroalgae, have long been common in the East-Asian diet. During recent years, macroalgae have entered the global food market, and a variety of macroalgae products are now available for consumers. Some macroalgae species are known to be particularly rich in iodine, but little data regarding the iodine content of macroalgae-containing foods exists. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this research study was to analyse the iodine content in a large variety of commercially available macroalgae-containing foods and supplements and to evaluate whether such products are sources of adequate dietary iodine. DESIGN: Ninety-six different products were collected after surveying the Norwegian market for commercially available macroalgae products, collected from three categories: 1) wholefood macroalgae products (n = 43), 2) macroalgae-containing foods (n = 39), and 3) dietary supplements containing macroalgae (n = 14). All products were analysed for iodine content by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). RESULTS: The iodine content in one portion of wholefood macroalgae products ranged from 128 to 62,400 µg. In macroalgae-containing foods, the iodine content ranged from 30 to 25,300 µg per portion, and in supplements it ranged from 5 to 5,600 µg per daily dose. The species with the highest analysed iodine content were oarweed, sugarkelp and kombu, with mean iodine levels of 7,800, 4,469 and 2,276 µg/g, respectively. For 54 products, the intake of one portion or dose would exceed the tolerable upper intake level (UL) for iodine. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: The iodine content in the included products was variable and for most products high, exceeding the tolerable upper intake level (UL) if consumed as a serving or portion size. The labelling of macroalgae species included, and declaration of iodine content, were inadequate or inaccurate for several products. As macroalgae-containing products are unreliable iodine sources, inclusion of such products in the diet may pose a risk of consuming excessive amounts of iodine.

Sampling protocol for the determination of nutrients and contaminants in fish and other seafood - The EAF-Nansen Programme.

Seafood plays a central role in global food and nutrition security. However, there is a lack of data on the concentration of nutrients and contaminants in fish and other seafood, especially in low- and middle-income countries. In order to assess the potential risks and benefits associated with seafood intake, reliable and up-to-date food composition data is crucial. The quality of food composition data is affected by several factors, such as sampling protocols and the suitability and quality of the methods applied for sample preparation and analysis. In this paper, we describe the sampling methodology and protocols related to the sampling of fish and other seafood and the corresponding analytical methods used to analyse the nutrient and contaminant content of such species. For nutrients, the determination of protein, fat, ash, energy, fatty acids, cholesterol, and amino acids is described, in addition to analyses for determination of the vitamin and mineral content in fish and other seafood. For contaminants, analyses for the determination of organic pollutants and microplastics are described. The methodology described in this paper is used for sampling data through scientific surveys in low- and middle-income countries with research vessel Dr. Fridtjof Nansen under the EAF-Nansen Programme. The Programme aims to improve knowledge on the nutritional composition of fish and ensure the fish is safe to consume.•In this paper, we describe the sampling protocols used for sampling fish and other seafood during scientific surveys under the EAF-Nansen Programme.•This paper describes the methodology and quality control for analysing nutrients and contaminants in fish and other seafood.

Fatty Acid Reference Intervals in Red Blood Cells among Pregnant Women in Norway-Cross Sectional Data from the 'Little in Norway' Cohort.

There is a growing interest in determining fatty acid reference intervals from pregnancy cohort, especially considering the lack of reference values for pregnant women in the literature and the generalized misconception of equating reference intervals for nonpregnant women as equivalent to pregnant women. Seafood and supplements are important dietary sources for the omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω-3 LCPUFA), such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5ω-3), docosapentaenoic acid (DPA, 22:55ω-3), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6ω-3). Sufficient intake of EPA and DHA is vital during pregnancy for the development of the fetus, as well as for maintaining adequate levels for the mother. This study describes the fatty acid status and suggests reference values and cut-offs for fatty acids in red blood cells (RBC) from pregnant women (n = 247). An electronic food frequency questionnaire (e-FFQ) mapped the dietary habits of the participants, and gas chromatography was used to determine the fatty acid levels in RBC. The association between e-FFQ variables and fatty acid concentrations was established using a principal component analysis (PCA). Twenty-nine-point-one percent (29.1%) of the participants reported eating seafood as dinner according to the Norwegian recommendations, and they added in their diet as well a high percentage (76.9%) intake of ω-3 supplements. The concentration levels of fatty acids in RBC were in agreement with those reported in similar populations from different countries. The reference interval 2.5/97.5 percentiles for EPA, DPA, DHA were 0.23/2.12, 0.56/2.80, 3.76/10.12 in relative concentration units (%), and 5.99/51.25, 11.08/61.97, 64.25/218.08 in absolute concentration units (µg/g), respectively. The number of participants and their selection from all over Norway vouch for the representativeness of the study and the validity of the proposed reference values, and therefore, the study may be a useful tool when studying associations between fatty acid status and health outcome in future studies. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first PCA study reporting a direct association between ω-3 LCPUFA and intake of seafood and ω-3 supplements in a pregnancy cohort.

Iodine Status and Thyroid Function in a Group of Seaweed Consumers in Norway.

Seaweeds, or macroalgae, may be a good dietary iodine source but also a source of excessive iodine intake. The main aim in this study was to describe the iodine status and thyroid function in a group of macroalgae consumers. Two urine samples were collected from each participant (n = 44) to measure urinary iodine concentration (UIC) after habitual consumption of seaweed. Serum thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), free thyroxine (fT4), free triiodothyronine (fT3), and peroxidase autoantibody (TPOAb), were measured in a subgroup (n = 19). A food frequency questionnaire and an iodine-specific 24 h recall were used to assess iodine intake and macroalgae consumption. The median (p25-p75) UIC was 1200 (370-2850) µg/L. Median (p25-p75) estimated dietary iodine intake, excluding macroalgae, was 110 (78-680) µg/day, indicating that seaweed was the major contributor to the iodine intake. TSH levels were within the reference values, but higher than in other comparable population groups. One third of the participants used seaweeds daily, and sugar kelp, winged kelp, dulse and laver were the most common species. Labelling of iodine content was lacking for a large share of the products consumed. This study found excessive iodine status in macroalgae consumers after intake of dietary seaweeds. Including macroalgae in the diet may give excessive iodine exposure, and consumers should be made aware of the risk associated with inclusion of macroalgae in their diet.

Composition of nutrients, heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and microbiological quality in processed small indigenous fish species from Ghana: Implications for food security.

The triple burden of malnutrition is an incessant issue in low- and middle-income countries, and fish has the potential to mitigate this burden. In Ghana fish is a central part of the diet, but data on nutrients and contaminants in processed indigenous fish species, that are often eaten whole, are missing. Samples of smoked, dried or salted Engraulis encrasicolus (European anchovy), Brachydeuterus auritus (bigeye grunt), Sardinella aurita (round sardinella), Selene dorsalis (African moonfish), Sierrathrissa leonensis (West African (WA) pygmy herring) and Tilapia spp. (tilapia) were collected from five different regions in Ghana. Samples were analyzed for nutrients (crude protein, fat, fatty acids, several vitamins, minerals, and trace elements), microbiological quality (microbial loads of total colony counts, E. coli, coliforms, and Salmonella), and contaminants (PAH4 and heavy metals). Except for tilapia, the processed small fish species had the potential to significantly contribute to the nutrient intakes of vitamins, minerals, and essential fatty acids. High levels of iron, mercury and lead were detected in certain fish samples, which calls for further research and identification of anthropogenic sources along the value chains. The total cell counts in all samples were acceptable; Salmonella was not detected in any sample and E. coli only in one sample. However, high numbers of coliform bacteria were found. PAH4 in smoked samples reached high concentrations up to 1,300 µg/kg, but in contrast salted tilapia samples had a range of PAH4 concentration of 1 µg/kg to 24 µg/kg. This endpoint oriented study provides data for the nutritional value of small processed fish as food in Ghana and also provides information about potential food safety hazards. Future research is needed to determine potential sources of contamination along the value chains in different regions, identify critical points, and develop applicable mitigation strategies to improve the quality and safety of processed small fish in Ghana.

Vegans, Vegetarians and Pescatarians Are at Risk of Iodine Deficiency in Norway.

Low iodine intakes have been documented in different population groups in Norway. We aimed to assess iodine status, dietary intake, supplement and macroalgae use, and iodine knowledge in vegans, vegetarians and pescatarians. In this study, 115 vegans, 55 vegetarians and 35 pescatarians from the Oslo region of Norway, aged 18-60 years, participated. A spot urine sample was collected along with a dietary assessment of iodine intake, supplement and macroalgae use. The median urinary iodine concentration (MUIC) in vegans was 43 µg/L (moderate iodine deficiency), in vegetarians 67 µg/L and in pescatarians 96 µg/L (mild iodine deficiency). In multiple linear regression analysis, use of iodine supplements was one of the strongest predictors of UIC. About half of the participants had median 24-h iodine intakes below estimated average requirement (EAR) of 100 µg/day. Fifty percent had low knowledge score, while 27% had very low knowledge score. Vegans, vegetarians and possibly pescatarians in Norway, are unable to reach the recommended iodine intake merely from food and are dependent on iodine supplements. There is an urgent need for dietary guidance targeting vegans, vegetarians and pescatarians to avoid inadequate iodine intake in non-supplement users, as well as avoiding excess iodine intake in macroalgae users.

Variation in Nutrient Composition of Seafood from North West Africa: Implications for Food and Nutrition Security.

Fish and seafood may play an important role for nutrition and food security as they contain essential vitamins, minerals, and essential fatty acids. The aim of this study was to describe the nutrient composition, including fatty acids, amino acids, vitamins, and minerals, in commonly consumed fish species (fillet- and whole fish samples) sampled off the Northwest African coast. Furthermore, we assessed the species' contributions to the recommended nutrient intake (RNI) values from the World Health Organization (WHO). Samples of commercially important fish species (Sardina pilchardus, Engraulis encrasicolus, Trachurus trachurus, Pagellus acarne) were collected using trawling on the R/V Dr. Fridtjof Nansen in May 2017 and analyzed for nutrients at the Institute of Marine Research as individual and composite samples. All the analyzed fish species were good dietary sources of several vitamins and minerals and whole fish were substantially more nutrient dense than fillet samples, especially with regard to vitamin A, iodine, zinc, calcium, and iron. Including 100 g of sardine or anchovy (whole fish) in the diet, would contribute substantially to the RNI for vitamin B12, vitamin D and vitamin A, EPA and DHA as well as the minerals iodine, zinc, and calcium. This study shows that fish consumed with skin, bone, and viscera may be very nutrient dense and important for local food and nutrition security.

Mercury, lead, arsenic, and cadmium in Norwegian seafood products and consumer exposure.

Seafood can be a source of contaminants, which may raise health concerns. The aim of this study was to analyse the levels of inorganic contaminants in commercially available seafood products and assess consumer exposure. Commercially available samples were collected from 2015-2018 and analysed as composite samples for mercury, lead, arsenic, and cadmium, using accredited methods. Levels of cadmium, lead, and arsenic were low and human exposure of these metals would be minimal from consumption of the analysed seafood products. Mercury levels were well below the EU maximum limit for mercury in fish. However, children, who are high consumers, might be at risk of exceeding the tolerable weekly intake for methyl mercury, when eating products with the highest mercury levels. The collected data can be used for future risk-benefit assessments as intake of processed seafood products represent a large proportion of the populations' seafood intake in Europe.