Benefit of B7-1 staining and abatacept for treatment-resistant post-transplant focal segmental glomerulosclerosis in a predominantly pediatric cohort: time for a reappraisal.

BACKGROUND: Primary FSGS manifests with nephrotic syndrome and may recur following KT. Failure to respond to conventional therapy after recurrence results in poor outcomes. Evaluation of podocyte B7-1 expression and treatment with abatacept (a B7-1 antagonist) has shown promise but remains controversial. METHODS: From 2012 to 2020, twelve patients developed post-KT FSGS with nephrotic range proteinuria, failed conventional therapy, and were treated with abatacept. Nine/twelve (< 21 years old) experienced recurrent FSGS; three adults developed de novo FSGS, occurring from immediately, up to 8 years after KT. KT biopsies were stained for B7-1. RESULTS: Nine KTRs (75%) responded to abatacept. Seven of nine KTRs were B7-1 positive and responded with improvement/resolution of proteinuria. Two patients with rFSGS without biopsies resolved proteinuria after abatacept. Pre-treatment UPCR was 27.0 ± 20.4 (median 13, range 8-56); follow-up UPCR was 0.8 ± 1.3 (median 0.2, range 0.07-3.9, p < 0.004). Two patients who were B7-1 negative on multiple KT biopsies did not respond to abatacept and lost graft function. One patient developed proteinuria while receiving belatacept, stained B7-1 positive, but did not respond to abatacept. CONCLUSIONS: Podocyte B7-1 staining in biopsies of KTRs with post-transplant FSGS identifies a subset of patients who may benefit from abatacept. A higher resolution version of the Graphical abstract is available as Supplementary information.

Maternal Hypertension Disorders and Neonatal Acute Kidney Injury: Results from the AWAKEN Study.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to examine the association between maternal hypertension (HTN) exposure and neonatal acute kidney injury (AKI). STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study of 2,162 neonates admitted to 24 neonatal intensive care units (NICUs). Neonates were classified into the following exposure groups: any maternal HTN, chronic maternal HTN, preeclampsia/eclampsia, both, or neither. Demographics, clinical characteristics, and AKI status were compared using Chi-square and analysis of variance. General estimating logistic regression was used to estimate adjusted odds ratios and included a stratified analysis for site of delivery. RESULT: Neonates exposed to any maternal HTN disorder had a tendency toward less overall and early AKI. When stratified by inborn versus outborn, exposure to both maternal HTN disorders was associated with a significantly reduced odds of early AKI only in the inborn neonates. CONCLUSION: Exposure to maternal HTN, especially preeclampsia/eclampsia superimposed on chronic HTN, was associated with less likelihood of early AKI in the inborn group. KEY POINTS: · Maternal HTN is associated with less neonatal AKI.. · Maternal HTN category is variably associated with AKI.. · Inborn status is an important contributor to this association..

The old becomes new: advances in imaging techniques to assess nephron mass in children.

Renal imaging is widely used in the assessment of surrogate markers of nephron mass correlated to renal function. Autopsy studies have tested the validity of various imaging modalities in accurately estimating "true" nephron mass. However, in vivo assessment of nephron mass has been largely limited to kidney volume determination by ultrasonography (US) in pediatric populations. Practical limitations and risks create challenges in incorporating more precise 3D volumetric imaging, like magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and computed tomography (CT) technologies, compared to US for routine kidney volume assessment in children. Additionally, accounting for structural anomalies such as hydronephrosis when estimating renal parenchymal area in congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract (CAKUT) is important, as it correlates with chronic kidney disease (CKD) progression. 3D imaging using CT and MRI has been shown to be superior to US, which has traditionally relied on 2D measurements to estimate kidney volume using the ellipsoid calculation. Recent innovations using 3D and contrast-enhanced US (CEUS) provide improved accuracy with low risk. Indexing kidney volume to body surface area in children is an important standard that may allow early detection of CKD progression in high-risk populations. This review highlights current understanding of various imaging modalities in assessing nephron mass, discusses applications and limitations, and describes recent advances in the field of imaging and kidney disease. Although renal imaging has been a long-standing, essential tool in assessing kidney disease, innovation and new applications of established technologies provide important tools in the study and management of kidney disease in children.

Effects of Klotho supplementation on hyperoxia-induced renal injury in a rodent model of postnatal nephrogenesis.

BACKGROUND: Hyperoxia (HO) causes kidney injury in preterm infants; however, whether these effects are modifiable is unknown. We hypothesized that administration of exogenous soluble Klotho, a kidney-derived antioxidant, would attenuate HO-induced kidney injury during postnatal nephrogenesis in rats. METHODS: Sprague Dawley neonatal rats assigned to normoxia (21% O2) or HO (85% O2) groups from postnatal day (P) 1 to 21 were randomly assigned to receive alternate day intraperitoneal injections of recombinant Klotho or placebo for 3 weeks. They were recovered in normoxia for an additional 3 weeks and sacrificed at 6 weeks. Renal artery resistance and pulsatility indices, tubular injury scores, glomerular area, and renal antioxidant capacity were assessed. RESULTS: Rodents exposed to HO during postnatal nephrogenesis had reduced kidney Klotho expression, glomerulomegaly, and higher tubular injury scores. Exogenous Klotho administration improved renal perfusion as indicated by decreases in both resistance and pulsatility indices and increased antioxidant enzyme expression. CONCLUSIONS: HO exposure during postnatal nephrogenesis in rodents results in a decline in kidney Klotho expression, decreased renal perfusion, enlarged glomerular size, and tubular injury. The exogenous administration of Klotho attenuated HO-induced kidney injury and augmented antioxidant capacity.

Twin gestation and the burden of adult cardio-renal disease.

The rate of twin births has increased by nearly 80% in recent decades largely due to advanced reproductive technologies. Twins are often born preterm and/or growth restricted which are independently associated with impaired renal and vascular development. Many preterm and twin infants are surviving into adulthood, albeit with an increased burden of chronic health conditions. Twinning as a research tool offers the unique opportunity to investigate the impact of genetics versus the environment on clinical outcomes. This educational review will focus on delineating our current understanding of the renal and cardiovascular development and long-term outcomes among twin born individuals. Specifically, existing literature regarding how twins differ in kidney size and function as well as vascular stiffness and hypertension profiles from singletons will be discussed. The unique situation of twin-twin transfusion syndrome which is associated with distinct short- and long-term cardio-renal disease will be highlighted. Ultimately, the ability to stratify risk of future cardio-renal disease at birth for infants born preterm and/or growth restricted, including twins, is important to guide clinical follow up. In addition, this early risk stratification could direct research efforts to better understand the mechanisms driving impaired organogenesis and allow for discovery of therapeutic interventions aimed at modifying disease progression and improving longevity in the most vulnerable infant subgroups.

Cinacalcet as rescue therapy for refractory hyperparathyroidism in young children with advanced chronic kidney disease.

BACKGROUND: Studies in the use of the calcimimetic, cinacalcet, in pediatric chronic kidney disease (CKD) are few and limited to older children with secondary hyperparathyroidism (sHPT), a major morbid complication contributing to poor growth, bone deformities, and cardiovascular disease. Our objectives were to determine a safe and effective dosing regimen of cinacalcet in the treatment of infants and young children with sHPT that was refractory to standard care and to examine their growth during treatment. METHODS: Ten young pediatric patients with advanced CKD were studied retrospectively during 11 courses of treatment with cinacalcet. All had severe sHPT with intact parathyroid hormone (iPTH) levels ≥ 500 pg/ml and were refractory to standard therapy with phosphate binders and active vitamin D analogs at high doses for > 30 days. The cinacalcet dose was advanced by 50% every 2-4 weeks to achieve a decline in the iPTH to a goal of 150-300 pg/ml. Linear growth was assessed at 6-month intervals by change in z-scores (△SDS) for length before and during cinacalcet therapy. RESULTS: Median age at initiation of cinacalcet was 18 months (IQR 6, 36) with an average starting dose of 0.7 ± 0.2 mg/kg/day. Median effective dose required to reach iPTH goal of 150-300 pg/ml was 2.8 mg/kg/day (IQR 2.0, 3.1), and time to goal was 112 days (IQR 56, 259) with a median overall decline in iPTH of 82% from baseline by 6 months (p < 0.0001). No subject experienced a clinical adverse event, although 4 had biochemical asymptomatic hypocalcemia. Linear growth improved significantly during cinacalcet therapy (△SDS - 0.62 ± 1.2 versus + 0.91 ± 1.4; p < 0.005). By multiple regression analysis, the primary determinants of growth were concurrent treatment with growth hormone and age < 2 years (R2 = 89.6%; p < 0.001). A shorter treatment time required to achieve iPTH goals also was associated with improved growth (r = - 0.75; p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Cinacalcet may be used effectively and safely in infants and small children with refractory sHPT in advanced CKD using a cautious dosing regimen. Cinacalcet successfully brings iPTH to target level and supports growth when other treatments have been ineffective.

Oral paricalcitol: expanding therapeutic options for pediatric chronic kidney disease patients.

The complex pathophysiology of progressive chronic kidney disease (CKD) and the development of mineral and bone disorder, abbreviated as CKD-MBD, is of vital importance to a pediatric patient. Paricalcitol, the 19 nor-1,25(OH)2D2 analogue was shown to be effective and safe in the treatment of secondary hyperparathyroidism (SHPT) in adults almost two decades ago. It also significantly improved survival in dialysis patients compared to the standard calcitriol. The successful treatment of CKD-MBD in children is essential if they are to grow and survive into adulthood. It can be argued that it is more important for children with CKD than adults since they have early and prolonged disease risk exposure. In this issue of Pediatric Nephrology, Webb et.al. report a dual trial of the safety, efficacy, and pharmacokinetics of paricalcitol in children aged 10-16 years with moderate but significant efficacy in meeting the endpoint of >30% decrease in parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels from baseline with minimal adverse events. Much more research needs to be done to expand and develop clinical pharmaceutical trials in the use of paricalcitol in children, especially in the younger age categories. This current study has done much to open the doors for future studies, with the caveat that it has been long coming and much more needs to be done to compensate for this delay in the treatment of children with CKD-MBD and cardiovascular and renal disease progression.

Fibroblast growth factor-23 and renin-angiotensin system levels in vitamin-D-dependent rickets type I.

BACKGROUND: As 1,25(OH)2D3 vitamin D3 induces fibroblast growth factor-23 (FGF-23) production and suppresses the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), its absence in vitamin-D-dependent rickets type I (VDDR-I) may have adverse health consequences. CASE DESCRIPTION: An infant presented at age 8 months with hypocalcemia and rickets and very low 1,25(OH)2D3 levels. Genetic analysis confirmed VDRR-I, and calcitriol therapy was initiated. During periods of nonadherence to therapy, chemical measurements revealed detectable FGF-23 levels, with undetectable 1,25(OH)2D3, hypophosphatemia, low tubular reabsorption of phosphate, hypocalcemia, and very elevated parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels. These changes, in addition to elevated RAAS levels, normalized during calcitriol therapy despite elevated FGF-23 levels. At age 12 years, all rachitic manifestations were absent, and bone mineral density (BMD) and the echocardiogram were normal. CONCLUSIONS: Whereas 1,25(OH)2D3 is not indispensable for FGF-23 production, PTH in the absence of vitamin D may maintain FGF-23 secretion despite hypocalcemia. Normalization of urinary phosphate losses despite elevated FGF-23 during calcitriol-mediated suppression of secondary hyperparathyroidism points to a cardinal role of PTH as a cause of the phosphaturia in VDRR-I. Normalization of RAAS by calcitriol may conceivably prevent adverse cardiovascular outcomes.

Assessment of kidney function in preterm infants: lifelong implications.

This educational review will highlight the historical and contemporary references that establish a basic understanding of measurements of kidney function in the neonate and its relevance for the life of an individual. Importantly, the differential renal function of preterm infants relative to term infants has become paramount with the increased viability of preterm infants and the realization that kidney function is associated with gestational age. Moreover, neonatal kidney function is primarily associated with absolute renal mass and hemodynamic stability. Neonatal kidney function and its early developmental progression predict lifelong cardiovascular and renal disease risks. Validation of estimation equations of kidney function in this population has provided important reference data for other investigations and a clinical basis for prospective and longitudinal follow-up. Future research should be directed towards a better understanding of surrogate markers of kidney function from infancy through adulthood. Pediatric nephrologists should be aware of the developmental aspects of kidney function including the importance of the congenital nephron endowment and the preservation of kidney function throughout a lifetime. • Nephrogenesis occurs in utero in concert with other organ systems by branching morphogenesis, including the lungs, pancreas, and vascular tree, with over 60 % of nephrons being formed during the last trimester. • Infants born preterm before 36 weeks' gestation are in active nephrogenesis and are at increased risk of having a decreased nephron endowment from prenatal and postnatal genetic and epigenetic hazards that will impact the patient for a lifetime. • Post-natal adaptation of kidney function is directly proportional to the number of perfused nephrons, estimated by total kidney volume (TKV), mean arterial pressure (MAP), and gestational age. • Accurate measurement of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) in infants is problematic due to the unavailability of the gold standard inulin. The traditional use of creatinine to estimate GFR is unreliable in preterm infants due to its tubular reabsorption by immature kidneys and its dependence on muscle mass as an endogenous marker. Alternative endogenous markers to estimate GFR are cystatin C and beta trace protein (BTP). • Long-term follow-up of renal function in those born preterm should be life long and should include assessment of GFR, total kidney volume (TKV) relative to body surface area (BSA), and cardiovascular risks including hypertension and vascular stiffness.

Longitudinal patterns of urine biomarkers in infants across gestational ages.

BACKGROUND: Urinary biomarkers may be indicators of acute kidney injury (AKI), although little is known of their developmental characteristics in healthy neonates across a full range of gestational age (GA). The purpose of this study was to examine patterns of urinary biomarkers across GA groups from birth to 3 months of age. METHODS: Fifty-two infants ranging from 24 to 41 weeks' GA had urine assayed from birth through 3 months of age for 7 biomarkers including albumin (ALB), beta-2-microglobulin (B2M), cystatin-C (CysC), epidermal growth factor (EGF), neutrophil-gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL), osteopontin (OPN), and uromodulin (UMOD). RESULTS: Of the seven urinary biomarkers, EGF and UMOD increased while others decreased with advancing GA. By 3 months of age, EGF and UMOD had increased in preterm infants to levels similar to those of term infants. UMOD/ml and EGF/ml appeared to be predominantly developmental biomarkers distinguishing estimated glomerular filtration rate (GFR) <30 ml/min/1.73 m(2) with receiver operator characteristic area under the curve (ROC-AUC) of 0.82; p = 0.002. When factored by urine creatinine CysC/cr + ALB/cr were the most significant functional markers with AUC = 0.79; p = 0.004; sensitivity 96 %; specificity 58 %. CONCLUSIONS: Among healthy neonates, urinary biomarkers vary with GA. These data support the use of urinary biomarkers in the assessment of normal kidney development in the absence of injury.

Renin Angiotensin System Blocker Fetopathy: A Midwest Pediatric Nephrology Consortium Report.

OBJECTIVES: Fetuses continue to be exposed to renin angiotensin system (RAS) blockers despite their known teratogenicity and a black box warning. We hypothesized that fetopathy from in utero exposure to RAS blockers has a broader spectrum of clinical manifestations than described previously and that there are a variety of clinical scenarios leading to such exposures. STUDY DESIGN: This was a retrospective study performed through the Midwest Pediatric Nephrology Consortium. Cases of RAS blocker fetopathy were identified, with determination of renal and extrarenal manifestations, timing of exposure, and the explanation for the fetal exposure. RESULTS: Twenty-four cases were identified. RAS blocker exposure after the first trimester was associated with more severe renal manifestations. Chronic dialysis or kidney transplantation was required in 8 of 17 (47%) patients with RAS blocker exposure after the first trimester and 0 of 7 patients with exposure restricted to the first trimester (P = .05). Extrarenal manifestations, some not previously noted in the literature, included central nervous system anomalies (cystic encephalomalacia, cortical blindness, sensorineural hearing loss, arachnoid cysts) and pulmonary complications (pneumothorax, pneumomediastinum). RAS blocker exposure usually was secondary to absent or poor prenatal care or undiagnosed pregnancy. CONCLUSION: RAS blocker fetopathy continues to be a cause of considerable morbidity, with more severe renal manifestations associated with exposure after the first trimester. A variety of significant extrarenal manifestations occur in these patients. Clinicians should emphasize the risk of fetopathy when prescribing RAS blockers to women of childbearing age.

Neonatal kidney size and function in preterm infants: what is a true estimate of glomerular filtration rate?

OBJECTIVES: To distinguish between cystatin C (CysC) and creatinine (Cr) as markers of estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) in preterm infants and to correlate eGFR with total kidney volume (TKV) as a surrogate of nephron mass. STUDY DESIGN: Sixty preterm (<37 weeks' gestational age [GA]) and 40 term infants were enrolled at birth. Serum Cr and CysC levels were assessed during the first week of life. Renal ultrasounds were performed to assess kidney dimensions with calculation of the TKV as a surrogate of nephron mass. Six equations derived from reference inulin, iohexol, and iothalamate clearance studies were used to calculate eGFR. Multiple regression analysis was applied to assess the relative impact of neonatal measures on eGFR, including TKV, GA, and mean arterial pressure (MAP). RESULTS: Renal lengths correlated with GA and were within the reference values for intrauterine measurements. Estimation equations for glomerular filtration rate (GFR) based on Cr, CysC, and combined CysC + Cr demonstrated that Cr-based equations consistently underestimated GFR, whereas CysC and combined equations were more consistent with referenced inulin clearance studies. Term infants demonstrated significantly better eGFR than preterm infants. TKV, GA, and MAP correlated positively with eGFR, although only MAP and GA remained significant when adjusted for other covariates. CONCLUSIONS: Primary determinants of eGFR in preterm infants are GA and MAP. The CysC level is a superior biomarker to serum Cr in the assessment of GFR in premature infants.

Neonatal hyperoxia exposure leads to developmental programming of cardiovascular and renal disease in adult rats.

Premature infants are often exposed to hyperoxia. However, there is limited data regarding the mechanistic underpinnings linking neonatal hyperoxia exposure and its contribution to cardio-renal dysfunction in adults born preterm. Our objective was to determine whether neonatal hyperoxia induces systemic vascular stiffness and cardio-renal dysfunction in adulthood. Newborn rats were randomly assigned to room air (RA) or hyperoxia (85% O2) from postnatal day 1 to 14, then recovered in RA until 1 year of life. Arterial stiffness, cardio-renal histomorphometry, and fibrosis in the aorta, heart, and kidney were assessed. RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) of the aorta and kidney was also done. Adult rats exposed to neonatal hyperoxia had increased aortic and mesenteric artery stiffness as demonstrated by wire and pressure myography. They also had cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, glomerulomegaly, and tubular injury. Hyperoxia exposure altered the transcriptome profile associated with fibrosis and matrix remodeling in the aorta and kidney. There was also increased TGF-ß1 levels and fibrosis in the aorta, left ventricle, and kidney. In conclusion, neonatal hyperoxia exposure was associated with systemic vascular and cardio-renal alterations in 1-year-old rats. Further studies to determine how targeted therapies could reprogram cardio-renal injury after neonatal hyperoxia exposure are indicated.

Transplantation: platform to study recurrence of disease.

Beyond the direct benefit that a transplanted organ provides to an individual recipient, the study of the transplant process has the potential to create a better understanding of the pathogenesis, etiology, progression and possible therapy for recurrence of disease after transplantation while at the same time providing insight into the original disease. Specific examples of this include: 1) recurrence of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) after kidney transplantation, 2) recurrent autoimmunity after pancreas transplantation, and 3) recurrence of disease after orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT) for cirrhosis related to progressive steatosis secondary to jejuno-ileal bypass (JIB) surgery. Our team has been studying these phenomena and their immunologic underpinnings, and we suggest that expanding the concept to other pathologic processes and/or transplanted organs that harbor the risk for recurrent disease may provide novel insight into the pathogenesis of a host of other disease processes that lead to organ failure.

Therapeutic plasma exchange in the treatment of exertional heat stroke and multiorgan failure.

BACKGROUND: Exertional heat stroke (EHS) results in a constellation of systemic inflammatory responses resulting in multiorgan failure and an extremely high mortality. CASE DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENTS: We present the case of an 11-year-old obese male who suffered EHS with rhabdomyolysis and concurrent renal, pulmonary, and hepatic failure. Conventional therapies including continuous veno-venous hemodiafiltration (CVVHDF) were ineffective in preventing ongoing deterioration in clinical status. Liver biopsy was reported as "extensive hepatocyte ballooning" and liver-kidney transplantation was tentatively planned. CONCLUSIONS: The addition of therapeutic plasma exchange using the Prismaflex® system (Gambro, Lakewood, CO, USA) resulted in a reversal of the inflammatory process and recovery from multiorgan failure. Liver biopsy was not a reliable indicator of irreversible hepatic injury.

Hypertension in infancy: diagnosis, management and outcome.

Advances in the ability to identify, evaluate, and care for infants with hypertension, coupled with advances in the practice of Neonatology, have led to an increased awareness of hypertension in modern neonatal intensive care units. This review will present updated data on blood pressure values in neonates, with a focus on the changes that occur over the first days and weeks of life in both term and preterm infants. Optimal blood pressure measurement techniques as well as the differential diagnosis of hypertension in the neonate and older infants will be discussed. Recommendations for the optimal immediate and long-term evaluation and treatment, including potential treatment parameters, will be presented. We will also review additional information on outcome that has become available over the past decade.

Fibroblast growth factor 23 and left ventricular hypertrophy in children on dialysis.

BACKGROUND: Elevated fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF-23) concentrations associate with left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) and adverse outcomes in adult patients with chronic kidney disease. We hypothesized that similar associations are present in pediatric patients on maintenance hemodialysis. METHODS: In this retrospective study of 26 young patients on chronic hemodialysis, aged 6-21 years, cardiac structure and geometry were measured by echocardiography, and circulating levels of FGF-23 and calciotropic hormones were obtained. RESULTS: FGF-23 levels were uniformly elevated in all patients from three- to 835-fold above the upper limit of normal. The average LV mass index (LVMI) was 43 ± 13 g/m(2.7) and reflected LVH in 55 % of patients. Log-transformed FGF-23 concentrations correlated with LVMI (p = 0.03) and were independently associated with the interventricular septal thickness Z-score (p < 0.001). Concentric LVH was associated with the highest FGF-23 concentrations and the highest LVMI measurements (p < 0.001). Each 1 standard deviation increase in log-transformed FGF-23 levels was associated with a 17 % increase in LVMI. CONCLUSIONS: FGF-23 levels are strongly associated with increased LVMI and with prevalent LVH in pediatric hemodialysis patients. Our cross-sectional findings provide observational evidence supporting the hypothesis linking FGF-23 to cardiac hypertrophy in patients with chronic kidney disease.

Spectrum of Clinical Manifestations in Children With WT1 Mutation: Case Series and Literature Review.

Background: Mutations of the Wilms tumor suppressor-1 gene (WT1) are associated with life-threatening glomerulopathy, disorders of sexual development, Wilm's tumor, and gonadal malignancies. Our objectives were to describe the clinical presentations, age of progression, and onset of complications of WT1 mutation through a case series and literature review. Methods: A retrospective study included all patients followed at the University of Miami/Holtz Children's Hospital from January 2000 to December 2020 with a diagnosis of WT1 mutation. A literature review of WT1 mutation cases was analyzed for clinical manifestations, karyotype, and long-term outcomes. Results: The WT1 mutation was identified in 9 children, median age at presentation of 0.9 years (range 1 week to 7 years). A total of four had female phenotypes, and 5 had abnormalities of male external genitalia, while all had XY karyotypes. All progressed to end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) and received a kidney transplant at a median age of 5 years (1.5-15 years). During a median time of follow-up of 9 years (range 2-28 years), there were 2 allograft losses after 7 and 10 years and no evidence of post-transplant malignancy. From 333 cases identified from the literature review, the majority had female phenotype 66% (219/333), but the predominant karyotype was XY (55%, 183/333). Of the female phenotypes, 32% (69/219) had XY sex reversal. Wilm's tumor occurred in 24%, predominantly in males with gonadal anomalies. Conclusions: Early recognition of WT1 mutation is essential for comprehensive surveillance of potential malignancy, avoidance of immunosuppressants for glomerulopathy, and establishing long-term multidisciplinary management.

Educational Review: The Impact of Perinatal Oxidative Stress on the Developing Kidney.

Oxidative stress occurs when there is an imbalance between reactive oxygen species/reactive nitrogen species and antioxidant systems. The interplay between these complex processes is crucial for normal pregnancy and fetal development; however, when oxidative stress predominates, pregnancy related complications and adverse fetal programming such as preterm birth ensues. Understanding how oxidative stress negatively impacts outcomes for the maternal-fetal dyad has allowed for the exploration of antioxidant therapies to prevent and/or mitigate disease progression. In the developing kidney, the negative impact of oxidative stress has also been noted as it relates to the development of hypertension and kidney injury mostly in animal models. Clinical research addressing the implications of oxidative stress in the developing kidney is less developed than that of the neurodevelopmental and respiratory conditions of preterm infants and other vulnerable neonatal groups. Efforts to study the oxidative stress pathway along the continuum of the perinatal period using a team science approach can help to understand the multi-organ dysfunction that the maternal-fetal dyad sustains and guide the investigation of antioxidant therapies to ameliorate the global toxicity. This educational review will provide a comprehensive and multidisciplinary perspective on the impact of oxidative stress during the perinatal period in the development of maternal and fetal/neonatal complications, and implications on developmental programming of accelerated aging and cardiovascular and renal disease for a lifetime.