Early-Onset Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia in Pediatric Severe Traumatic Brain Injury.

BACKGROUND: Early-onset ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) is associated with poor outcomes in patients with severe traumatic brain injury (TBI). The primary aim of this study was to describe VAP, including the microbiology of VAP and differences in frequency of VAP when various definitions are applied. The secondary aim was to determine the clinical variables associated with the development of VAP in children with severe TBI. METHODS: This is a retrospective cohort study at a quaternary referral children's hospital with a level I trauma center designation. Inclusion criteria were patients aged 0-18 years admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit between 2015 and 2020 with severe TBI requiring at least 2 days of invasive ventilation. VAP was defined by using Center of Disease Control (CDC) definition or clinical VAP, based on physician diagnosis. We compared general demographics, reviewed trauma and injury data, and outcomes to assess any differences between patients with VAP and non-VAP patients. Associations were tested with regression models. RESULTS: After applying all inclusion and exclusion criteria, 90 patients were included in the analysis. Patients with VAP were older (8.5 vs. 5.6 years, P = 0.03). Patients with VAP were less likely to have suffered from abusive head trauma (P = 0.01). Patients who received continuous neuromuscular blockade or targeted temperature management did not have different frequencies of VAP. CDC-defined VAP was diagnosed in 27% of patients. Number of patients with VAP increased to 41% for physician-diagnosed or clinical VAP. Methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus was the most common isolate grown, followed by Hemophilus influenza, with most VAP occurring on days 2-5 of intubation. VAP was not associated with mortality but was associated with worse functional status scale in patients who survived to discharge (8 vs. 7.5, P = 0.048). Over a cumulative period of days, nebulized 3% and albuterol were associated with decreased incidence of VAP. CONCLUSIONS: Ventilator-associated pneumonia occurs commonly in children with severe TBI, with rates of 27-41%, depending on CDC-defined VAP or clinical VAP. The discrepancy between clinical VAP and CDC-defined VAP further illustrates the need for a standardized definition for VAP. Although most interventions were not associated with VAP, nebulized 3% saline and albuterol were associated with reduced incidence of VAP; future investigation is needed to determine whether mucolytic agents can decrease the rate of VAP in children with severe TBI.

Use of Subcutaneous Injection of Epinephrine and Triamcinolone with Tranexamic Acid Reduces Blood Loss, Transfusion Rates, and Length of Stay in Open Sagittal Craniosynostosis Repair.

OBJECTIVE: In 2017, we adopted the use of triamcinolone/epinephrine (TAC/Epi) scalp injection and later added tranexamic acid (TXA) in open sagittal synostosis surgery. We believe that this reduced blood loss and transfusion rates. METHODS: A total of 107 consecutive patients operated for sagittal synostosis aged <4 months from 2007 to 2019 were retrospectively reviewed. We collected demographics [age, sex, weight at surgery, and length of stay (LOS)], intraoperative information [estimated blood loss (EBL)], administration of packed red blood cell, transfusion of plasmalyte/albumen, operating time, baseline hemoglobin (Hb) and hematocrit (Hct), type of local anesthetic (1/4% bupivacaine vs. TAC/Epi), and use/volume of TXA. Hb, Hct, coagulation studies, and platelets at 2 hours postoperatively and postoperative day (POD) 1 were recorded. RESULTS: There were 3 groups: 1/4% bupivacaine/epinephrine (N=64), TAC/Epi (N=13), and TAC/Epi with TXA bolus/infusion intraoperatively (N=30). Groups receiving TAC/Epi or TAC/Epi with TXA had lower mean EBL ( P <0.0001), lower rate/amount of packed red blood cell transfusion ( P <0.0001), lower prothrombin time/international normalized ratio on POD 1 ( P <0.0001), higher platelets ( P <0.001), and shorter operative time ( P <0.0001). LOS was shortest for TAC/Epi with TXA ( P <0.0001). No significant differences between groups were noted on POD 1 Hb, Hct, or partial prothrombin time. Post hoc testing revealed an advantage of TAC/Epi with TXA over TAC/Epi alone for 2-hour postoperative international normalized ratio ( P =0.0249), Operating Room time ( P =0.0179), and LOS ( P =0.0049). CONCLUSIONS: Use of TAC/Epi alone reduced EBL, LOS, Operating Room time, and improved laboratory values postoperatively in open sagittal synostosis surgery. Addition of TXA further improved operative time and LOS. It is likely that lower rates of transfusion could be tolerated.

Quality of Resuscitative Care Provided to an Infant With Abusive Head Trauma in Community Emergency Departments: An In Situ, Prospective, Simulation-Based Study.

OBJECTIVES: Abusive head trauma (AHT) is a very common and serious form of physical abuse, and a major cause of mortality and morbidity for young children. Early Recognition and supportive care of children with AHT is a common challenge in community emergency department (CEDs). We hypothesized that standardized, in situ simulation can be used to measure and compare the quality of resuscitative measures provided to children with AHT in a diverse set of CEDs. METHODS: This prospective, simulation-based study measured teams' performance across CEDs. The primary outcome was overall adherence to AHT using a 15-item performance assessment checklist based on the number of tasks performed correctly on the checklist. RESULTS: Fifty-three multiprofessional teams from 18 CEDs participated in the study. Of 270 participants, 20.7% were physicians, 65.2% registered nurses, and 14.1% were other providers. Out of all tasks, assessment of airway/breathing was the most successfully conducted task by 53/53 teams (100%). Although 43/53 teams (81%) verbalized the suspicion for AHT, only 21 (39.6%) of 53 teams used hyperosmolar agent, 4 (7.5%) of 53 teams applied cervical spine collar stabilization, and 6 (11.3%) of 53 teams raised the head of the bed. No significant difference in adherence to the checklist was found in the CEDs with an inpatient pediatric service or these with designated adult trauma centers compared with CEDs without. Community emergency departments closer to the main academic center outperformed CEDs these that are further away. CONCLUSIONS: This study used in situ simulation to describe quality of resuscitative care provided to an infant presenting with AHT across a diverse set of CEDs, revealing variability in the initial recognition and stabilizing efforts and provided and targets for improvement. Future interventions focusing on reducing these gaps could improve the performance of CED providers and lead to improved patient outcomes.

Filum Terminale Ependymoma in an Infant with Meningocele.

This report describes a case of an ependymoma found in the setting of tethered cord syndrome. We present a 3-month-old girl with prenatal diagnosis of lumbar meningocele who later underwent tethered cord release. After birth, she was neurologically intact and only found to have a skin-covered meningocele. An MRI was obtained and significant for low-lying conus terminating at L5, a focal syrinx, and Chiari II malformation. She underwent an elective meningocele repair and resection of thickened filum for tethered cord release at 3 months of age. Unexpectedly, microscopic evaluation of the filum was consistent with a small focus of ependymoma in addition to the filum tissue. Previous case reports have suggested a link between thickened filum in the setting of spinal dysraphism and myxopapillary ependymoma, but to our knowledge, this is the first report of ependymoma in the setting of tethered cord syndrome.

Alterations in cerebral ventricle size in children with congenital heart disease.

PURPOSE: Children with tetralogy of Fallot (TOF) and superior cavopulmonary anastomoses (SCPA) can have chronically elevated central venous pressure (CVP), which has been postulated to put patients at risk for cerebral ventriculomegaly. We aimed to examine cerebral ventricle size in children with these congenital heart lesions before and after surgery to determine how changes in CVP affect ventricle size. METHODS: We reviewed the records of patients who underwent SCPA or TOF repair between 2006 and 2015. Patients with pre- or post-operative cranial imaging were included. Frontal-occipital (FO) horn ratios were calculated as measures of cerebral ventricle volume. Reported normal mean FO ratio is 0.37 ± 0.03. Patient characteristics including occipito-fronto circumference (OFC) and available CVP measurements were recorded. CVP, FO ratios, and OFC percentiles were compared using paired and unpaired t tests and Wilcoxon matched pairs signed-rank test as appropriate. RESULTS: We reviewed 44 patients who underwent SCPA and 31 patients who underwent TOF repair who had cranial imaging studies available. In the 22 patients who underwent SCPA and had pre- and post-operative imaging, mean FO ratios significantly increased from 0.37 ± 0.03 to 0.40 ± 0.04 (P < 0.001). In contrast, in the seven patients with TOF with pre- and post-operative imaging, FO ratio was elevated at baseline and remains so after surgical repair, 0.43 ± 0.08 to 0.42 ± 0.08 (P = 0.65). Similar patterns were noted with OFC percentiles, which were significantly increased as compared to baseline after SCPA (P < 0.001) but were not significantly changed after TOF repair (P = 0.58). Finally, when available, preoperative and postoperative CVP measurements of all patients were examined, CVP increased in patients who underwent SCPA, from 6.5 ± 2 mmHg preoperatively to 9.1 ± 2.3 mmHg postoperatively (P < 0.001), while CVP remained statistically unchanged in patients who underwent TOF repair, 12.9 ± 3.3 mmHg preoperatively to 14.4 ± 3.1 mmHg postoperatively (P = 0.2). CONCLUSION: Cerebral ventriculomegaly was observed in patients with SCPA and TOF, and the observed changes in FO ratio and OFC may be related, at least in part, to CVP.

The role of occipital condyle and atlas anomalies on occipital cervical fusion outcomes in Chiari malformation type I with syringomyelia: a study from the Park-Reeves Syringomyelia Research Consortium.

OBJECTIVE: Congenital anomalies of the atlanto-occipital articulation may be present in patients with Chiari malformation type I (CM-I). However, it is unclear how these anomalies affect the biomechanical stability of the craniovertebral junction (CVJ) and whether they are associated with an increased incidence of occipitocervical fusion (OCF) following posterior fossa decompression (PFD). The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of condylar hypoplasia and atlas anomalies in children with CM-I and syringomyelia. The authors also investigated the predictive contribution of these anomalies to the occurrence of OCF following PFD (PFD+OCF). METHODS: The authors analyzed the prevalence of condylar hypoplasia and atlas arch anomalies for patients in the Park-Reeves Syringomyelia Research Consortium database who underwent PFD+OCF. Condylar hypoplasia was defined by an atlanto-occipital joint axis angle (AOJAA) ≥ 130°. Atlas assimilation and arch anomalies were identified on presurgical radiographic imaging. This PFD+OCF cohort was compared with a control cohort of patients who underwent PFD alone. The control group was matched to the PFD+OCF cohort according to age, sex, and duration of symptoms at a 2:1 ratio. RESULTS: Clinical features and radiographic atlanto-occipital joint parameters were compared between 19 patients in the PFD+OCF cohort and 38 patients in the PFD-only cohort. Demographic data were not significantly different between cohorts (p > 0.05). The mean AOJAA was significantly higher in the PFD+OCF group than in the PFD group (144° ± 12° vs 127° ± 6°, p < 0.0001). In the PFD+OCF group, atlas assimilation and atlas arch anomalies were identified in 10 (53%) and 5 (26%) patients, respectively. These anomalies were absent (n = 0) in the PFD group (p < 0.001). Multivariate regression analysis identified the following 3 CVJ radiographic variables that were predictive of OCF occurrence after PFD: AOJAA ≥ 130° (p = 0.01), clivoaxial angle < 125° (p = 0.02), and occipital condyle-C2 sagittal vertical alignment (C-C2SVA) ≥ 5 mm (p = 0.01). A predictive model based on these 3 factors accurately predicted OCF following PFD (C-statistic 0.95). CONCLUSIONS: The authors' results indicate that the occipital condyle-atlas joint complex might affect the biomechanical integrity of the CVJ in children with CM-I and syringomyelia. They describe the role of the AOJAA metric as an independent predictive factor for occurrence of OCF following PFD. Preoperative identification of these skeletal abnormalities may be used to guide surgical planning and treatment of patients with complex CM-I and coexistent osseous pathology.

Disability or Death: A Focused Review of Informed Consent in Pediatric Neurosurgery.

The management of pediatric neurosurgical disease often requires families to choose between long-term disability and premature death. This decision-making is codified by informed consent. In practice, decision-making is heavily weighted toward intervening to prevent death, often with less consideration of the realities of long-term disability. We analyze long-term disability in pediatric neurosurgical disease from the perspectives of patients, families, and society. We then present a pragmatic framework and conversational approach for addressing informed consent discussions when the outcome is expected to be death or disability. We performed a focused review of literature regarding informed consent in pediatric neurosurgery by searching PubMed and Google Scholar with search terms including "pediatric neurosurgery," "informed consent," and "disability." The literature was focused on patients with diagnoses including spina bifida, neuro-oncology, trauma, and hydrocephalus. Patient perspective elements were physical/mental disability, lack of autonomy, and role in community/society. The family perspective involves caregiver burden, emotional toll, and financial impact. Societal considerations include the availability of public resources for disabled children, large-scale financial cost, and impacts on global health. Practical conversational steps with patients/caregivers include opening the discussion, information provision and acknowledgement of uncertainty, assessment of understanding and clarifying questions, decision-making, and decision maintenance, all while remaining sensitive to the emotional burden commensurate with these decisions. The "death or disability" paradigm represents a common challenge to informed consent in pediatric neurosurgery. Patient, family, and societal factors that inform surrogate decisions vary and sometimes conflict. Pediatric neurosurgeons must use a comprehensive approach to address the informational and relational needs of caregivers during the informed consent process.

Congress of Neurological Surgeons Systematic Review and Evidence-Based Guidelines for Patients With Chiari Malformation: Surgical Interventions.

BACKGROUND: Chiari malformation type I (CIM) diagnoses have increased in recent years. Controversy regarding the best operative management prompted a review of the literature to offer guidance on surgical interventions. OBJECTIVE: To assess the literature to determine (1) whether posterior fossa decompression or posterior fossa decompression with duraplasty is more effective in preoperative symptom resolution; (2) whether there is benefit from cerebellar tonsillar resection/reduction; (3) the role of intraoperative neuromonitoring; (4) in patients with a syrinx, how long should a syrinx be observed for improvement before additional surgery is performed; and 5) what is the optimal duration of follow-up care after preoperative symptom resolution. METHODS: A systematic review was performed using the National Library of Medicine/PubMed and Embase databases for studies on CIM in children and adults. The most appropriate surgical interventions, the use of neuromonitoring, and clinical improvement during follow-up were reviewed for studies published between 1946 and January 23, 2021. RESULTS: A total of 80 studies met inclusion criteria. Posterior fossa decompression with or without duraplasty or cerebellar tonsil reduction all appeared to show some benefit for symptom relief and syrinx reduction. There was insufficient evidence to determine whether duraplasty or cerebellar tonsil reduction was needed for specific patient groups. There was no strong correlation between symptom relief and syringomyelia resolution. Many surgeons follow patients for 6-12 months before considering reoperation for persistent syringomyelia. No benefit or harm was seen with the use of neuromonitoring. CONCLUSION: This evidence-based clinical guidelines for the treatment of CIM provide 1 Class II and 4 Class III recommendations. In patients with CIM with or without syringomyelia, treatment options include bone decompression with or without duraplasty or cerebellar tonsil reduction. Improved syrinx resolution may potentially be seen with dural patch grafting. Symptom resolution and syrinx resolution did not correlate directly. Reoperation for a persistent syrinx was potentially beneficial if the syrinx had not improved 6 to 12 months after the initial operation. The full guidelines can be seen online at https://www.cns.org/guidelines/browse-guidelines-detail/3-surgical-interventions .

Congress of Neurological Surgeons Systematic Review and Evidence-Based Guidelines for Patients With Chiari Malformation: Diagnosis.

BACKGROUND: Chiari I malformation (CIM) is characterized by descent of the cerebellar tonsils through the foramen magnum, potentially causing symptoms from compression or obstruction of the flow of cerebrospinal fluid. Diagnosis and treatment of CIM is varied, and guidelines produced through systematic review may be helpful for clinicians. OBJECTIVE: To perform a systematic review of the medical literature to answer specific questions on the diagnosis and treatment of CIM. METHODS: PubMed and Embase were queried between 1946 and January 23, 2021, using the search strategies provided in Appendix I of the full guidelines. RESULTS: The literature search yielded 567 abstracts, of which 151 were selected for full-text review, 109 were then rejected for not meeting the inclusion criteria or for being off-topic, and 42 were included in this systematic review. CONCLUSION: Three Grade C recommendations were made based on Level III evidence. The full guidelines can be seen online at https://www.cns.org/guidelines/browse-guidelines-detail/1-imaging .

Congress of Neurological Surgeons Systematic Review and Evidence-Based Guidelines for Patients With Chiari Malformation: Symptoms.

BACKGROUND: Chiari I malformation (CIM) is characterized by descent of the cerebellar tonsils through the foramen magnum, potentially causing symptoms from compression or obstruction of the flow of cerebrospinal fluid. Diagnosis and treatment of CIM is varied, and guidelines produced through systematic review may be helpful for clinicians. OBJECTIVE: To perform a systematic review of the medical literature to answer specific questions on the diagnosis and treatment of CIM. METHODS: PubMed and Embase were queried between 1946 and January 23, 2021, using the search strategies provided in Appendix I of the full guidelines. RESULTS: The literature search yielded 430 abstracts, of which 79 were selected for full-text review, 44 were then rejected for not meeting the inclusion criteria or for being off-topic, and 35 were included in this systematic review. CONCLUSION: Four Grade C recommendations were made based on Class III evidence, and 1 question had insufficient evidence. The full guidelines can be seen online at https://www.cns.org/guidelines/browse-guidelines-detail/2-symptoms .

Toward rational use of repeat imaging in children with mild traumatic brain injuries and intracranial injuries.

OBJECTIVE: Limited evidence exists on the utility of repeat neuroimaging in children with mild traumatic brain injuries (mTBIs) and intracranial injuries (ICIs). Here, the authors identified factors associated with repeat neuroimaging and predictors of hemorrhage progression and/or neurosurgical intervention. METHODS: The authors performed a multicenter, retrospective cohort study of children at four centers of the Pediatric TBI Research Consortium. All patients were ≤ 18 years and presented within 24 hours of injury with a Glasgow Coma Scale score of 13-15 and evidence of ICI on neuroimaging. The outcomes of interest were 1) whether patients underwent repeat neuroimaging during index admission, and 2) a composite outcome of progression of previously identified hemorrhage ≥ 25% and/or repeat imaging as an indication for subsequent neurosurgical intervention. The authors performed multivariable logistic regression and report odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals. RESULTS: A total of 1324 patients met inclusion criteria; 41.3% of patients underwent repeat imaging. Repeat imaging was associated with clinical change in 4.8% of patients; the remainder of the imaging tests were for routine surveillance (90.9%) or of unclear prompting (4.4%). In 2.6% of patients, repeat imaging findings were reported as an indication for neurosurgical intervention. While many factors were associated with repeat neuroimaging, only epidural hematoma (OR 3.99, 95% CI 2.22-7.15), posttraumatic seizures (OR 2.95, 95% CI 1.22-7.41), and age ≥ 2 years (OR 2.25, 95% CI 1.16-4.36) were significant predictors of hemorrhage progression and/or neurosurgery. Of patients without any of these risk factors, none underwent neurosurgical intervention. CONCLUSIONS: Repeat neuroimaging was commonly used but uncommonly associated with clinical deterioration. Although several factors were associated with repeat neuroimaging, only posttraumatic seizures, age ≥ 2 years, and epidural hematoma were significant predictors of hemorrhage progression and/or neurosurgery. These results provide the foundation for evidence-based repeat neuroimaging practices in children with mTBI and ICI.

The association of postoperative dexmedetomidine with pain, opiate utilization, and hospital length of stay in children post-Chiari malformation decompression.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to determine the association of postoperative dexmedetomidine with markers of pain in children undergoing Chiari malformation decompression. The authors hypothesized that patients receiving dexmedetomidine postoperatively would have decreased cumulative opiate use. They further hypothesized that there would be no difference in median pain scores, outcomes, or medication adverse events. METHODS: An IRB-approved retrospective cohort study of patients undergoing Chiari malformation decompression from December 1, 2015, to December 31, 2018, was performed. Patients aged 0-21 years who underwent intradural Chiari malformation decompression at a single institution were included. Data for those who used dexmedetomidine postoperatively were compared with those who did not use dexmedetomidine. The primary outcome was cumulative opiate use throughout hospitalization. Secondary outcomes included pain scores, ancillary medication use, adverse events, hospital and ICU length of stay, readmission rates, and hospital cost. RESULTS: The authors reviewed the records of 172 patients who underwent Chiari malformation decompression. Of those patients, 86 received dexmedetomidine postoperatively and 86 did not. Demographics were not different between the groups. Patients who received dexmedetomidine postoperatively received more doses of dexamethasone and were also more frequently exposed to dexmedetomidine intraoperatively (p = 0.028). Patients who received dexmedetomidine postoperatively used fewer morphine equivalents during their admission (1.02 mg/kg vs 1.43 mg/kg, p = 0.003). The patients who received dexmedetomidine postoperatively also had lower median pain scores on postoperative day 0 (0 vs 2, p < 0.001), lower median pain scores throughout the entire admission (1 vs 2, p < 0.001), and lower maximum pain scores recorded (6 vs 8, p = 0.005). Adjusting for steroid dose number and intraoperative dexmedetomidine exposure, postoperative dexmedetomidine remained associated with lower opiate dosing, lower pain scores on postoperative day 0, lower scores throughout hospital stay, and lower maximum pain scores. Patients who received dexmedetomidine had shorter hospital lengths of stay by 19 hours (p < 0.001). There were no statistically significant differences in medication adverse events or hospital costs between the two groups. CONCLUSIONS: Postoperative dexmedetomidine use was associated with decreased opiate use, lower pain scores, and shorter hospital length of stay in this cohort. Dexmedetomidine may be considered as a safe adjuvant medication that may have opiate-sparing effects for this patient population.

Measures of Intracranial Injury Size Do Not Improve Clinical Decision Making for Children With Mild Traumatic Brain Injuries and Intracranial Injuries.

BACKGROUND: When evaluating children with mild traumatic brain injuries (mTBIs) and intracranial injuries (ICIs), neurosurgeons intuitively consider injury size. However, the extent to which such measures (eg, hematoma size) improve risk prediction compared with the kids intracranial injury decision support tool for traumatic brain injury (KIIDS-TBI) model, which only includes the presence/absence of imaging findings, remains unknown. OBJECTIVE: To determine the extent to which measures of injury size improve risk prediction for children with mild traumatic brain injuries and ICIs. METHODS: We included children ≤18 years who presented to 1 of the 5 centers within 24 hours of TBI, had Glasgow Coma Scale scores of 13 to 15, and had ICI on neuroimaging. The data set was split into training (n = 1126) and testing (n = 374) cohorts. We used generalized linear modeling (GLM) and recursive partitioning (RP) to predict the composite of neurosurgery, intubation >24 hours, or death because of TBI. Each model's sensitivity/specificity was compared with the validated KIIDS-TBI model across 3 decision-making risk cutoffs (<1%, <3%, and <5% predicted risk). RESULTS: The GLM and RP models included similar imaging variables (eg, epidural hematoma size) while the GLM model incorporated additional clinical predictors (eg, Glasgow Coma Scale score). The GLM (76%-90%) and RP (79%-87%) models showed similar specificity across all risk cutoffs, but the GLM model had higher sensitivity (89%-96% for GLM; 89% for RP). By comparison, the KIIDS-TBI model had slightly higher sensitivity (93%-100%) but lower specificity (27%-82%). CONCLUSION: Although measures of ICI size have clear intuitive value, the tradeoff between higher specificity and lower sensitivity does not support the addition of such information to the KIIDS-TBI model.

Socioeconomic and demographic factors in the diagnosis and treatment of Chiari malformation type I and syringomyelia.

OBJECTIVE: The goal of this study was to assess the social determinants that influence access and outcomes for pediatric neurosurgical care for patients with Chiari malformation type I (CM-I) and syringomyelia (SM). METHODS: The authors used retro- and prospective components of the Park-Reeves Syringomyelia Research Consortium database to identify pediatric patients with CM-I and SM who received surgical treatment and had at least 1 year of follow-up data. Race, ethnicity, and insurance status were used as comparators for preoperative, treatment, and postoperative characteristics and outcomes. RESULTS: A total of 637 patients met inclusion criteria, and race or ethnicity data were available for 603 (94.7%) patients. A total of 463 (76.8%) were non-Hispanic White (NHW) and 140 (23.2%) were non-White. The non-White patients were older at diagnosis (p = 0.002) and were more likely to have an individualized education plan (p < 0.01). More non-White than NHW patients presented with cerebellar and cranial nerve deficits (i.e., gait ataxia [p = 0.028], nystagmus [p = 0.002], dysconjugate gaze [p = 0.03], hearing loss [p = 0.003], gait instability [p = 0.003], tremor [p = 0.021], or dysmetria [p < 0.001]). Non-White patients had higher rates of skull malformation (p = 0.004), platybasia (p = 0.002), and basilar invagination (p = 0.036). Non-White patients were more likely to be treated at low-volume centers than at high-volume centers (38.7% vs 15.2%; p < 0.01). Non-White patients were older at the time of surgery (p = 0.001) and had longer operative times (p < 0.001), higher estimated blood loss (p < 0.001), and a longer hospital stay (p = 0.04). There were no major group differences in terms of treatments performed or complications. The majority of subjects used private insurance (440, 71.5%), whereas 175 (28.5%) were using Medicaid or self-pay. Private insurance was used in 42.2% of non-White patients compared to 79.8% of NHW patients (p < 0.01). There were no major differences in presentation, treatment, or outcome between insurance groups. In multivariate modeling, non-White patients were more likely to present at an older age after controlling for sex and insurance status (p < 0.01). Non-White and male patients had a longer duration of symptoms before reaching diagnosis (p = 0.033 and 0.004, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Socioeconomic and demographic factors appear to influence the presentation and management of patients with CM-I and SM. Race is associated with age and timing of diagnosis as well as operating room time, estimated blood loss, and length of hospital stay. This exploration of socioeconomic and demographic barriers to care will be useful in understanding how to improve access to pediatric neurosurgical care for patients with CM-I and SM.

Complications and outcomes of posterior fossa decompression with duraplasty versus without duraplasty for pediatric patients with Chiari malformation type I and syringomyelia: a study from the Park-Reeves Syringomyelia Research Consortium.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to determine differences in complications and outcomes between posterior fossa decompression with duraplasty (PFDD) and without duraplasty (PFD) for the treatment of pediatric Chiari malformation type I (CM1) and syringomyelia (SM). METHODS: The authors used retrospective and prospective components of the Park-Reeves Syringomyelia Research Consortium database to identify pediatric patients with CM1-SM who received PFD or PFDD and had at least 1 year of follow-up data. Preoperative, treatment, and postoperative characteristics were recorded and compared between groups. RESULTS: A total of 692 patients met the inclusion criteria for this database study. PFD was performed in 117 (16.9%) and PFDD in 575 (83.1%) patients. The mean age at surgery was 9.86 years, and the mean follow-up time was 2.73 years. There were no significant differences in presenting signs or symptoms between groups, although the preoperative syrinx size was smaller in the PFD group. The PFD group had a shorter mean operating room time (p < 0.0001), fewer patients with > 50 mL of blood loss (p = 0.04), and shorter hospital stays (p = 0.0001). There were 4 intraoperative complications, all within the PFDD group (0.7%, p > 0.99). Patients undergoing PFDD had a 6-month complication rate of 24.3%, compared with 13.7% in the PFD group (p = 0.01). There were no differences between groups for postoperative complications beyond 6 months (p = 0.33). PFD patients were more likely to require revision surgery (17.9% vs 8.3%, p = 0.002). PFDD was associated with greater improvements in headaches (89.6% vs 80.8%, p = 0.04) and back pain (86.5% vs 59.1%, p = 0.01). There were no differences between groups for improvement in neurological examination findings. PFDD was associated with greater reduction in anteroposterior syrinx size (43.7% vs 26.9%, p = 0.0001) and syrinx length (18.9% vs 5.6%, p = 0.04) compared with PFD. CONCLUSIONS: PFD was associated with reduced operative time and blood loss, shorter hospital stays, and fewer postoperative complications within 6 months. However, PFDD was associated with better symptom improvement and reduction in syrinx size and lower rates of revision decompression. The two surgeries have low intraoperative complication rates and comparable complication rates beyond 6 months.

Intrasacral Meningocele Complicating Caudal Analgesia in a 6-Year-Old Child After 3 Previous Uneventful Caudals: A Case Report.

A 6-year-old male undergoing bilateral hydrocelectomy was to receive caudal analgesia after induction of general anesthesia. After insertion of the caudal needle, cerebrospinal fluid was unexpectedly aspirated and the caudal was abandoned. The surgeon performed bilateral ilioinguinal nerve blocks just before incision. Surgery was uneventful. The patient had difficulty ambulating postoperatively, and a detailed neurologic examination revealed quadriceps weakness. A lumbosacral magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed a sacral meningocele. By the next morning, quadriceps function had returned, and he was ambulating normally. The ilioinguinal block was most likely deep to the internal oblique muscle and produced femoral nerve dysfunction.

Delayed presentation of a traumatic scalp arteriovenous fistula.

BACKGROUND: Arteriovenous (AV) fistulas of the scalp are extracranial vascular malformations commonly caused by trauma and typically present within 3 years. Although they follow a benign course, they can be esthetically displeasing. CASE DESCRIPTION: We present an atypical onset of scalp AV fistula in a patient with a 1-year history of the left-sided pulsatile tinnitus and scalp swelling 7 years after a traumatic epidural hematoma evacuation. Our patient was found to have an 8 mm AV fistula supplied by the deep temporal artery. Endovascular embolization was performed using eight coils. There was no complication from the procedure, and the patient's pulsatile tinnitus and swelling resolved immediately after embolization. Follow-up angiogram demonstrated complete obliteration of the AV fistula. CONCLUSION: Delayed presentation of traumatic scalp AV fistula is very rare, and it is important to keep this in the differential in patients with scalp swelling after head trauma.

Acute Cytotoxic Cerebellar Edema Subsequent to Fentanyl Patch Intoxication in an Infant.

The opioid epidemic continues to have devastating consequences for children and families across the United States with rising prevalence of opioid use and abuse. Given the ease of access to these medications, accidental ingestion and overdose by children are becoming increasingly more common. The recognition of opioid-induced neurotoxicity and the associated life-threatening complication of acute cerebellar cytotoxic edema are crucial, as are the high morbidity and mortality without timely intervention. We discuss an infant with acute cytotoxic cerebellar edema following mucosal exposure to a transdermal fentanyl patch.

Rapid Improvement Project: Improving Caregivers' Understanding of Safety Recommendations for Neurosurgical Devices.

There has been a proliferation in the development of indwelling neuromodulatory devices with varied safety recommendations, making it difficult for providers to remain up-to-date. This deficit presents an opportunity for significant improvement in patient safety. METHODS: We performed a search for monopolar electrocautery and magnetic resonance imaging safety recommendations for several indwelling neuromodulatory devices. We developed a questionnaire followed by an educational compendium and a posttest for 50 care providers. RESULTS: Overall, there was a poor performance on the pretest (mean 39%, SD 19%) but significant improvement on the posttest (mean 71%, SD 16%), P < 0.0001. We placed the educational compendium that included all manufacturer recommendations in the operating room for easy reference. A 2.4 times decrease in the case start times of vagus nerve stimulator cases is evidence of its effectiveness. CONCLUSIONS: The authors highlight the lack of knowledge about manufacturer safety recommendations for indwelling neurosurgical devices, which led to the creation of operating room supplements and educational devices.

Extradural decompression versus duraplasty in Chiari malformation type I with syrinx: outcomes on scoliosis from the Park-Reeves Syringomyelia Research Consortium.

OBJECTIVE: Scoliosis is common in patients with Chiari malformation type I (CM-I)-associated syringomyelia. While it is known that treatment with posterior fossa decompression (PFD) may reduce the progression of scoliosis, it is unknown if decompression with duraplasty is superior to extradural decompression. METHODS: A large multicenter retrospective and prospective registry of 1257 pediatric patients with CM-I (tonsils ≥ 5 mm below the foramen magnum) and syrinx (≥ 3 mm in axial width) was reviewed for patients with scoliosis who underwent PFD with or without duraplasty. RESULTS: In total, 422 patients who underwent PFD had a clinical diagnosis of scoliosis. Of these patients, 346 underwent duraplasty, 51 received extradural decompression alone, and 25 were excluded because no data were available on the type of PFD. The mean clinical follow-up was 2.6 years. Overall, there was no difference in subsequent occurrence of fusion or proportion of patients with curve progression between those with and those without a duraplasty. However, after controlling for age, sex, preoperative curve magnitude, syrinx length, syrinx width, and holocord syrinx, extradural decompression was associated with curve progression > 10°, but not increased occurrence of fusion. Older age at PFD and larger preoperative curve magnitude were independently associated with subsequent occurrence of fusion. Greater syrinx reduction after PFD of either type was associated with decreased occurrence of fusion. CONCLUSIONS: In patients with CM-I, syrinx, and scoliosis undergoing PFD, there was no difference in subsequent occurrence of surgical correction of scoliosis between those receiving a duraplasty and those with an extradural decompression. However, after controlling for preoperative factors including age, syrinx characteristics, and curve magnitude, patients treated with duraplasty were less likely to have curve progression than patients treated with extradural decompression. Further study is needed to evaluate the role of duraplasty in curve stabilization after PFD.