Effect of Beta-Alanine Supplementation on Maximal Intensity Exercise in Trained Young Male Individuals: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Beta-alanine is a nonessential amino acid that is commonly used to improve exercise performance. It could influence the buffering of hydrogen ions produced during intense exercise and delay fatigue, providing a substrate for increased synthesis of intramuscular carnosine. This systematic review evaluates the effects of beta-alanine supplementation on maximal intensity exercise in trained, young, male individuals. Six databases were searched on August 10, 2023, to identify randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trials investigating the effect of chronic beta-alanine supplementation in trained male individuals with an age range of 18-40 years. Studies evaluating exercise performance through maximal or supramaximal intensity efforts falling within the 0.5-10 min duration were included. A total of 18 individual studies were analyzed, employing 18 exercise test protocols and 15 outcome measures in 331 participants. A significant (p = .01) result was observed with an overall effect size of 0.39 (95% confidence interval [CI] [0.09, 0.69]), in favor of beta-alanine supplementation versus placebo. Results indicate significant effects at 4 weeks of supplementation, effect size 0.34 (95% CI [0.02, 0.67], p = .04); 4-10 min of maximal effort, effect size 0.55 (95% CI [0.07, 1.04], p = .03); and a high beta-alanine dosage of 5.6-6.4 g per day, effect size 0.35 (95% CI [0.09, 0.62], p = .009). The results provide insights into which exercise modality will benefit the most, and which dosage protocols and durations stand to provide the greatest ergogenic effects. This may be used to inform further research, and professional or recreational training design, and optimization of supplementation strategies.

Determination of glucosinolates and isothiocyanates in glucosinolate-rich vegetables and oilseeds using infrared spectroscopy: A systematic review.

Cruciferous vegetables and oilseeds are rich in glucosinolates that can transform into isothiocyanates upon enzymic hydrolysis during post-harvest handling, food preparation and/or digestion. Vegetables contain glucosinolates that have beneficial bioactivities, while glucosinolates in oilseeds might have anti-nutritional properties. It is therefore important to monitor and assess glucosinolates and isothiocyanates content through the food value chain as well as for optimized crop production. Vibrational spectroscopy methods, such as infrared (IR) spectroscopy, are used as a nondestructive, rapid and low-cost alternative to the current and common costly, destructive, and time-consuming techniques. This systematic review discusses and evaluates the recent literature available on the use of IR spectroscopy to determine glucosinolates and isothiocyanates in vegetables and oilseeds. NIR spectroscopy was used to predict glucosinolates in broccoli, kale, rocket, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, brown mustard, rapeseed, pennycress, and a combination of Brassicaceae family seeds. Only one study reported the use of NIR spectroscopy to predict broccoli isothiocyanates. The major limitations of these studies were the absence of the critical evaluation of errors associated with the reference method used to develop the calibration models and the lack of interpretation of loadings or regression coefficients used to predict glucosinolates.

Nutritional and Health Benefits of the Brown Seaweed Himanthalia elongata.

Himanthalia elongata is a brown seaweed containing several nutritional compounds and bioactive substances including antioxidants, dietary fibre, vitamins, fatty acids, amino acids, and macro- and trace- elements. A variety of bioactive compounds including phlorotannins, flavonoids, dietary fucoxanthin, hydroxybenzoic acid, hydroxycinnamic acid, polyphenols and carotenoids are also present in this seaweed. Multiple comparative studies were carried out between different seaweed species, wherein H. elongata was determined to exhibit high antioxidant capacity, total phenolic content, fucose content and potassium concentrations compared to other species. H. elongata extracts have also shown promising anti-hyperglycaemic and neuroprotective activities. H. elongata is being studied for its potential industrial food applications. In new meat product formulations, it lowered sodium content, improved phytochemical and fiber content in beef patties, improved properties of meat gel/emulsion systems, firmer and tougher with improved water and fat binding properties. This narrative review provides a comprehensive overview of the nutritional composition, bioactive properties, and food applications of H. elongata.

A self-training deep neural network for early prediction of cognitive deficits in very preterm infants using brain functional connectome data.

BACKGROUND: Deep learning has been employed using brain functional connectome data for evaluating the risk of cognitive deficits in very preterm infants. Although promising, training these deep learning models typically requires a large amount of labeled data, and labeled medical data are often very difficult and expensive to obtain. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to develop a self-training deep neural network (DNN) model for early prediction of cognitive deficits at 2 years of corrected age in very preterm infants (gestational age ≤32 weeks) using both labeled and unlabeled brain functional connectome data. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We collected brain functional connectome data from 343 very preterm infants at a mean (standard deviation) postmenstrual age of 42.7 (2.5) weeks, among whom 103 children had a cognitive assessment at 2 years (i.e. labeled data), and the remaining 240 children had not received 2-year assessments at the time this study was conducted (i.e. unlabeled data). To develop a self-training DNN model, we built an initial student model using labeled brain functional connectome data. Then, we applied the trained model as a teacher model to generate pseudo-labels for unlabeled brain functional connectome data. Next, we combined labeled and pseudo-labeled data to train a new student model. We iterated this procedure to obtain the best student model for the early prediction task in very preterm infants. RESULTS: In our cross-validation experiments, the proposed self-training DNN model achieved an accuracy of 71.0%, a specificity of 71.5%, a sensitivity of 70.4% and an area under the curve of 0.75, significantly outperforming transfer learning models through pre-training approaches. CONCLUSION: We report the first self-training prognostic study in very preterm infants, efficiently utilizing a small amount of labeled data with a larger share of unlabeled data to aid the model training. The proposed technique is expected to facilitate deep learning with insufficient training data.

Anti-Depressant Properties of Crocin Molecules in Saffron.

Saffron is a valued herb, obtained from the stigmas of the C. sativus Linn (Iridaceae), with therapeutic effects. It has been described in pharmacopoeias to be variously acting, including as an anti-depressant, anti-carcinogen, and stimulant agent. The therapeutic effects of saffron are harbored in its bioactive molecules, notably crocins, the subject of this paper. Crocins have been demonstrated to act as a monoamine oxidase type A and B inhibitor. Furthermore, saffron petal extracts have experimentally been shown to impact contractile response in electrical field stimulation. Other research suggests that saffron also inhibits the reuptake of monoamines, exhibits N-methyl-d-aspartate antagonism, and improves brain-derived neurotrophic factor signaling. A host of experimental studies found saffron/crocin to be similarly effective as fluoxetine and imipramine in the treatment of depression disorders. Saffron and crocins propose a natural solution to combat depressive disorders. However, some hurdles, such as stability and delivery, need to be overcome.

COVID-19 Knowledge, Attitudes, and Preventive Measures of University Students in Bahrain.

Background: The severe, acute respiratory syndrome COVID-19 that was first reported in China in December 2019 quickly became a global pandemic that has resulted in over 100 million infections and more than 2 million deaths. Study Design: This study aimed to assess the awareness level of university students regarding the possibility of becoming infected with COVID-19. In order to achieve this objective, we assessed the students' knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors using an online survey questionnaire offered to a total of 300 students. Results: A positive response regarding awareness of COVID-19 symptoms was registered by more than 70% of the students, whereas 62% felt that wearing a mask did not give full protection against infection, approximately 30% agreed that antibiotics and antivirals did not treat COVID-19, and 62% agreed that vitamin C was helpful in treating common symptoms of COVID-19. Moreover, around 31% of the students believed that COVID-19 is a man-made virus. Students who had gotten infected with SARS-CoV-2 believed that wearing a mask gives full protection (p=0.018). In response to survey questions related to attitude, 80% of students cancelled and postponed meetings with friends, and 90% agreed that mask-wearing is the most precautionary measure used to prevent the infection. In addition, 82% avoided coughing in public, 82% avoided contact if they felt flu-like symptoms and 80% washed their hands far more often due to the pandemic. Interestingly, 76% carried hand sanitizer, 66.5% avoided shaking hands, and 42.7% were taking vitamin C supplements. Conclusions: This study showed that the participants had a positive awareness of COVID-19 transmission, symptoms, and treatments misconceptions and mistaken beliefs related to treatments and the origin of the virus were also common and should be addressed. This study thus provides a baseline for a population-based surveillance program that could help local authorities to improve pandemic preparation plans, particularly with regard to governmental education and media campaigns.

A cross-sectional analysis of post-acute COVID-19 symptoms.

Objectives: The severe acute respiratory syndrome (COVID-19) due to SARS-CoV-2 was first reported in China in December 2019 and has generated a worldwide pandemic. The objective of the research is to examine and describe (a) the symptoms that persist after the end of the acute stage and (b) their relationship with the severity of the disease. Study Design: This study is a cross-sectional study conducted in the Kingdom of Bahrain on COVID-19 infected patients using an online survey questionnaire with a total number of 52 patient responses (29 females and 23 males). Method: A scale (0 no symptoms to 10 very high symptoms intensity) was assessed in patients after 3 months to detect the relevance of specific symptoms post-COVID-19 such as emotional and physical health, headache, dyspnoea, pain (muscles/joints/chest), anosmia, vertigo, neurologic symptoms, sarcopenia, delirium. Results: The most common COVID-19 symptoms were reported to be fever (69.2%), headache (59.6%), and cough (50.0%). Data analysis showed that BMI was not correlated with any post-acute COVID-19 symptoms. Regarding the post-acute COVID-19 symptoms, this study showed that an increase of intensity of headache was associated with an increase of delirium; an increase of intensity of dyspnoea was associated with an increase of pulmonary dysfunction. The increase of anosmia and dysgeusia was associated with an increase in delirium. In addition, the increase of neurological symptoms and delirium were associated with the increase of sarcopenia. The most common persistent post-COVID-19 symptoms observed in this study were emotional stress, followed by loss of smell and taste, and neurological symptoms. Conclusions: Therefore, follow-up and rehabilitation care for COVID-19 patients must be focused on addressing the needs of these people in the longer term.

Sustainable green extraction of anthocyanins and carotenoids using deep eutectic solvents (DES): A review of recent developments.

Recently, deep eutectic solvents (DES) have been extensively researched as a more biocompatible and efficient alternative to conventional solvents for extracting pigments from natural resources. The efficiency of DES extraction for the anthocyanin and carotenoid can be enhanced by microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) and/or ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) techniques. Apart from the extraction efficiency, the toxicity and recovery of the pigments and their bioavailability are crucial for potential applications. A plethora of studies have explored the extraction efficiency, toxicity, and recovery of pigments from various natural plant-based matrices using DES. Nevertheless, a detailed review of the deep eutectic solvent extraction of natural pigments has not been reported to date. Additionally, the toxicity, safety, and bioavailability of the extracted pigments, and their potential applications are not thoroughly documented. Therefore, this review is designed to understand the aforementioned concepts in using DES for anthocyanin and carotenoid extraction.

Effects of Vaccinium berries (blueberries, cranberries and bilberries) on oxidative stress, inflammation, exercise performance, and recovery - a systematic review.

Exercise-induced muscle damage is common in athletes and recreational exercisers and can lead to muscle soreness, weakness, and impaired muscle function. The precise mechanisms are unclear but oxidative stress and inflammation are thought to play a role. (Poly)phenols are substances abundant in Vaccinium berries that have been suggested to possess antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects that could help improve exercise performance and/or recovery from exercise. The objective of this systematic review was to evaluate the benefits of Vaccinium berry supplementation on exercise performance and recovery, as well as on exercise-induced oxidative and inflammatory biomarkers in healthy individuals. A comprehensive search was conducted in PubMed, ProQuest Medline, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, and Scopus. Studies were included if the participants were healthy individuals who were supplemented with any Vaccinium berry or Vaccinium berry-based products in comparison to a control group. Of the 13 articles included in this review, no significant differences in the exercise performance were found and only one study reported benefits for markers of recovery. Interleukins and c-reactive protein were the most frequently reported biomarkers, but there was limited evidence that Vaccinium berry supplementation impacted them post-exercise. Most studies were of high quality and showed a low risk of bias. Vaccinium berry supplementation is not effective in modulating markers of exercise-induced inflammation and oxidative distress in healthy individuals; nevertheless, more studies are required to evaluate their effects on exercise performance and recovery in this population.

How can chokeberry (Aronia) (poly)phenol-rich supplementation help athletes? A systematic review of human clinical trials.

Athletes are increasingly consuming (poly)phenol supplements to modify oxidative stress and/or exercise-induced inflammation, in the hope that this will enhance exercise performance. Chokeberries are rich in (poly)phenols and may therefore influence the health and performance of athletes. The objective of this systematic review was to comprehensively explore the effects of chokeberry supplementation on performance and exercise-induced biomarkers of oxidative stress, inflammation, and haematology in the athletic population. A search was conducted in PubMed, Web of Science, and SCOPUS. Studies were included if the participants were athletes, supplemented with chokeberry or chokeberry-based products, and evaluated sports-related outcomes. A total of ten articles were included in the study. The participants of all the studies were athletes and included rowers, football players, handball players, triathletes, and runners. A qualitative comprehensive summary of the applications of chokeberry supplementation targeting the athletic population has been evaluated. This included the effect of chokeberry supplementation on redox status, exercise-induced inflammation, haematology, iron metabolism, platelet aggregation, metabolic markers, body composition, and exercise performance. Chokeberry (poly)phenol-rich supplementation may be effective in enhancing the redox balance of athletes, yet more evidence is required to provide solid conclusions on its effect on inflammation, platelet function, iron metabolism and exercise performance.

Factors Affecting the Extraction of (Poly)Phenols from Natural Resources Using Deep Eutectic Solvents Combined with Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction.

Replacing conventional solvents with deep eutectic solvents (DES) has shown promising effects on the extraction yield of (poly)phenols. DES can be combined with ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) to further increase the extraction efficiency of (poly)phenols from natural resources compared to conventional methods. This review discusses the factors associated with DES (composition, solvent-to-sample ratio, extraction duration, and temperature) and UAE (ultrasound frequency, power, intensity, and duty cycle) methods that influence the extraction of (poly)phenols and informs future improvements required in the optimization of the extraction process. For the optimum (poly)phenol extraction from natural resources, the following parameters shall be considered: ultrasound frequency should be in the range of 20-50 kHz, ultrasound intensity in the range of 60-120 W/cm2, ultrasound duty cycle in the range of 40-80%, ultrasound duration for 10-30 minutes, and ultrasound temperature for 25-50 °C. Among the reported DES systems, choline chloride with glycerol or lactic acid, with a solvent-to-sample mass ratio of 10-30:1 shown to be effective. The solvent composition and solvent-to-sample mass ratio should be selected according to the target compound and the source material. However, the high viscosity of DES is among the major limitations. Optimizing these factors can help to increase the yield of extracted (poly)phenols and their applications.

Effect of Soy Protein Supplementation on Muscle Adaptations, Metabolic and Antioxidant Status, Hormonal Response, and Exercise Performance of Active Individuals and Athletes: A Systematic Review of Randomised Controlled Trials.

BACKGROUND: Protein supplements are important to maintain optimum health and physical performance, particularly in athletes and active individuals to repair and rebuild their skeletal muscles and connective tissues. Soy protein (SP) has gained popularity in recent years as an alternative to animal proteins. OBJECTIVES: This systematic review evaluates the evidence from randomised controlled clinical trials of the effects of SP supplementation in active individuals and athletes in terms of muscle adaptations, metabolic and antioxidant status, hormonal response and exercise performance. It also explores the differences in SP supplementation effects in comparison to whey protein. METHODS: A systematic search was conducted in PubMed, Embase and Web of Science, as well as a manual search in Google Scholar and EBSCO, on 27 June 2023. Randomised controlled trials that evaluated the applications of SPs supplementation on sports and athletic-related outcomes that are linked with exercise performance, adaptations and biomarkers in athletes and physically active adolescents and young adults (14 to 39 years old) were included, otherwise, studies were excluded. The risk of bias was assessed according to Cochrane's revised risk of bias tool. RESULTS: A total of 19 eligible original research articles were included that investigated the effect of SP supplementation on muscle adaptations (n = 9), metabolic and antioxidant status (n = 6), hormonal response (n = 6) and exercise performance (n = 6). Some studies investigated more than one effect. SP was found to provide identical increases in lean mass compared to whey in some studies. SP consumption promoted the reduction of exercise-induced metabolic/blood circulating biomarkers such as triglycerides, uric acid and lactate. Better antioxidant capacity against oxidative stress has been seen with respect to whey protein in long-term studies. Some studies reported testosterone and cortisol fluctuations related to SP; however, more research is required. All studies on SP and endurance performance suggested the potential beneficial effects of SP supplementation (10-53.3 g) on exercise performance by improving high-intensity and high-speed running performance, enhancing maximal cardiac output, delaying fatigue and improving isometric muscle strength, improving endurance in recreational cyclists, increasing running velocity and decreasing accumulated lactate levels; however, studies determining the efficacy of soy protein on VO2max provided conflicted results. CONCLUSION: It is possible to recommend SP to athletes and active individuals in place of conventional protein supplements by assessing their dosage and effectiveness in relation to different types of training. SP may enhance lean mass compared with other protein sources, enhance the antioxidant status, and reduce oxidative stress. SP supplementation had an inconsistent effect on testosterone and cortisol levels. SP supplementation may be beneficial, especially after muscle damage, high-intensity/high-speed or repeated bouts of strenuous exercise.

A state-of-art review on camel milk proteins as an emerging source of bioactive peptides with diverse nutraceutical properties.

The generation of camel milk derived bioactive peptides (CM-BAPs) have started to grab keen interest of many researchers during the past decade. CM-BAPs have shown more significant bioactive properties in comparison to camel milk intact proteins. CM-BAPs can be obtained using enzyme hydrolysis to form hydrolysates, or by the fermentation process. In this systematic review, 46 research articles exploring the health-related bioactive properties of CM-BAPs through in-vitro and in-vivo studies have been included. CM-BAPs have been reported for their antioxidant, anti-diabetic, anti-obesity, antihypertensive, antibacterial, antibiofilm, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-haemolytic, and anti-hyperpigmentation activities. The effects of factors such as molecular weight of peptides, type of enzyme, enzyme to substrate ratio, hydrolysis temperature and duration have been analysed. The in-vitro studies have provided enough evidence on certain aspects of the pharmacological actives of camel milk bioactive peptides. Nevertheless, the in-vivo studies are very limited, and no clinical studies on CM-BAPs have been reported.

Drying date plum (Diospyros lotus L.) fruit: Assessing rehydration properties, antioxidant activity, and phenolic compounds.

Date plum (Diospyrus lotus L.) is an edible fruit from the Ebenaceae family, rich in nutrients, and having tremendous medicinal properties. This paper attempted to show the influence of different parameters of convective drying such as temperature (50, 60, 70, and 80°C) and air velocity (0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 m/s) on the shrinkage and microstructure, rehydration properties, antioxidant activity, and phenolic compounds of date plum. The drying caused significant changes in the color, actual size, and distribution of the fruit cells of date plum. The total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) of fresh date plum were 0.81 ± 0.00 mg GAE/g, 0.23 ± 0.10 mg ECE/g, 7.15 ± 1.09 mmol ISE/g, and 14.92 ± 0.88 mmol/TE, respectively. The drying at 70°C had the highest values of TPC, TFC, gallic acid, chlorogenic and syringic acids, catechin, quercetin-3-glucoside, resveratrol, and DPPH. The drying air velocities showed no significant effects on the antioxidant contents and the antioxidant activity. Of the models applied to the drying kinetics, the Midilli model was found as the best model to describe the drying kinetics of date plum. In addition, the Weibull model was found as the most successful among the models applied to the rehydration kinetics of date plum. According to the achieved findings, the convective drying temperature of 70°C is the optimum temperature to produce the dehydrated date plum. Practical Application This work has revealed the drying conditions responsible for preserving the phenolic compounds, total flavonoid content, and antioxidant features of D. lotus L. The study found the optimum drying conditions, and Midilli and Weibull models were the most fitted models to describe the drying and rehydration behaviors of D. lotus L. fruits, respectively. The drying provides a reasonable value of the possibility of continuous consumption of the fruits dried afforded on off-seasons. The dried fruits are widely used for multipurpose and have been extensively used in food industries due to their rich nutraceutical and antioxidant compounds.

The Ketogenic Diet: Is It an Answer for Sarcopenic Obesity?

This review aims to define the effectiveness of the ketogenic diet (KD) for the management of sarcopenic obesity. As the combination of sarcopenia and obesity appears to have multiple negative metabolic effects, this narrative review discusses the effects of the ketogenic diet as a possible synergic intervention to decrease visceral adipose tissue (VAT) and fatty infiltration of the liver as well as modulate and improve the gut microbiota, inflammation and body composition. The results of this review support the evidence that the KD improves metabolic health and expands adipose tissue γδ T cells that are important for glycaemia control during obesity. The KD is also a therapeutic option for individuals with sarcopenic obesity due to its positive effect on VAT, adipose tissue, cytokines such as blood biochemistry, gut microbiota, and body composition. However, the long-term effect of a KD on these outcomes requires further investigations before general recommendations can be made.

Review on Extraction of Phenolic Compounds from Natural Sources Using Green Deep Eutectic Solvents.

For more sustainable and environmentally friendly scientific research, it is essential to apply green chemistry principles in all areas of science. A possible area in which green chemistry principles can significantly influence the productivity and the quality of the outcome is extraction of natural products. The conventional toxic solvents can be replaced by environmentally friendly solvents known as deep eutectic solvents, which fortunately, due to their unique properties, can significantly improve extraction efficiency. In this literature review, the extraction of a specific class of natural products, phenolic compounds, using different types of green deep eutectic solvents has been reviewed. Within this review, the composition of those solvents used to extract different types of phenolic compounds has been discussed. In addition, the factors affecting their extraction, extracting solvent component structure, molar ratio of extracting solvent components, extraction temperature, solid to extraction solvent ratio, and water content, have been evaluated.

Successful two-stage primary total knee arthroplasty for infective arthritis of the knee - our experience.

BACKGROUND: The incidence of septic arthritis is 2-10/100,000. Morbidity is higher with persistent joint dysfunction in up to 30%. Osteoarthritic knee with infection presents a rare challenge, with no established approach for treatment exists. We present our experience of managing infected degenerative joint disease (DJD) with two-stage primary arthroplasty similar to the management of periprosthetic joint infection. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Four patients presented to us between 2016 and 2018 with advanced DJD associated with coexistent joint sepsis with or without adjacent osteomyelitis. The diagnosis of joint sepsis with periarticular osteomyelitis was made based on clinical presentation, radiographic findings, inflammatory serological markers, and culture of knee joint aspirate. All were operated with primary arthroplasty in two stages of debridement with a static spacer followed by antibiotics and implantation. DISCUSSION: With no established method of treating DJD superadded with infection, our experience adds valuable information in treating the same. Our 2-staged primary arthroplasty had a short antibiotic duration between stages, a mean of 63.5 days, and stopped within 3 days of 2ndstage reducing hospital stay, morbidity, and cost.Our approach is a very viable method of treating infected DJD with a minimum drug holiday time of two weeks before implantation with a better outcome, reducing the recurrence rate of infection.Though a small number with a minimum follow-up of 24 months, we believe we provide valuable additional information. CONCLUSION: All patients had painless return to early activities with no signs of recurrent infection. Our approach is a very viable and could serve as a cost-effective method treatment for an infected arthritic knee.

HIV-1 reservoirs in urethral macrophages of patients under suppressive antiretroviral therapy.

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) eradication is prevented by the establishment on infection of cellular HIV-1 reservoirs that are not fully characterized, especially in genital mucosal tissues (the main HIV-1 entry portal on sexual transmission). Here, we show, using penile tissues from HIV-1-infected individuals under suppressive combination antiretroviral therapy, that urethral macrophages contain integrated HIV-1 DNA, RNA, proteins and intact virions in virus-containing compartment-like structures, whereas viral components remain undetectable in urethral T cells. Moreover, urethral cells specifically release replication-competent infectious HIV-1 following reactivation with the macrophage activator lipopolysaccharide, while the T-cell activator phytohaemagglutinin is ineffective. HIV-1 urethral reservoirs localize preferentially in a subset of polarized macrophages that highly expresses the interleukin-1 receptor, CD206 and interleukin-4 receptor, but not CD163. To our knowledge, these results are the first evidence that human urethral tissue macrophages constitute a principal HIV-1 reservoir. Such findings are determinant for therapeutic strategies aimed at HIV-1 eradication.