Epigenetic reprogramming of the genome--from the germ line to the embryo and back again.

Mammalian parental genomes are not functionally equivalent, and both a maternal and paternal contribution is required for normal development. The differences between the parental genomes are the result of genomic imprinting--a form of gene regulation that results in monoallelic expression of imprinted genes. Cis-regulatory elements at imprinted loci are responsible for directing allele-specific epigenetic marks required for correct gene expression. This cis information must be interpreted at various points in development, including in the germline where existing imprints are erased and reset. Imprints must also be maintained during preimplantation development, when the genome undergoes dramatic global epigenetic changes.

Primary pulmonary involvement of Fusarium solani in a lung transplant recipient.

A case of cavitary lung disease caused by Fusarium solani in a lung transplant recipient is presented. A mechanism for development of this infection is proposed. Lipid complex amphotericin B (Abelcet) was effective in eradicating this infection. To our knowledge, invasive lung disease caused by the Fusarium species has not been previously reported in a solid organ transplant recipient.

Airway obstruction arising from blood clot: three reports and a review of the literature.

Airway obstruction due to presence of blood clot occurs in a variety of clinical settings; however, it is not always preceded by hemoptysis. The impact on respiratory function may be minimal or result in life-threatening ventilatory impairment. Three illustrative cases and a comprehensive literature review are presented. The presence of endobronchial blood clot is suggested by the clinical and radiographic findings of focal airway obstruction. The diagnosis is established by direct endoscopic evaluation. Initial efforts at removal of the airway clot, if warranted, involve lavage, suctioning, and forceps extraction through a flexible bronchoscope. If unsuccessful, further management options include rigid bronchoscopy, Fogarty catheter dislodgment of the clot, and topical thrombolytic agents.

MAFA-L, an ITIM-containing receptor encoded by the human NK cell gene complex and expressed by basophils and NK cells.

The natural killer cell gene complex on human chromosome 12p12-13 encodes several C-type lectin receptor genes expressed by NK cells and other hematopoietic cells. We have identified a novel receptor gene in this region encoding a putative type II transmembrane glycoprotein. The product is 54% identical to the rat mast cell function-associated antigen (MAFA), which inhibits mast cell activation by IgE. The human MAFA-like receptor (MAFA-L) and the rat MAFA protein are expressed by basophils and both have an immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motif in the cytoplasmic tail, consistent with an inhibitory role in basophil activation. Unlike rat MAFA, expression of the MAFA-L gene is not limited to mast cells and basophils. In common with other genes in the NK cell gene complex MAFA-L is also expressed by natural killer cells as well as the monocyte-like cell-line U937. Expression in NK cells is restricted to peripheral blood NK cells, decidual NK cells do not express MAFA-L. While MAFA-L and rat MAFA might have a similar role in basophils, the expression of MAFA-L in other cell types implies additional functions for this molecule. The presence of the MAFA-L gene in the human NK cell complex indicates that this locus encodes C-type lectin receptors expressed by a variety of cells important in host defense.

Oxygen flow through nasal cannulae.

PURPOSE: Since many operating theatres do not have distinct oxygen flowmeters, flow rates of oxygen were measured via nasal prongs at several settings and attachments to three anaesthetic machines. METHODS: Oxygen-flow rates were measured using a Timeter RT-200 Calibration Analyzer at three, five and eight L.min-1 via nasal prongs attached to a distinct flowmeter, the common gas outlet (CGO) and the Y-piece of a circle system with the adjustable pressure release (APL) valve closed, open and partially open at circuit pressures of 10 and 20 cm H2O. RESULTS: The most accurate delivery of oxygen from a distinct flowmeter and the CGO (mean difference 0.2 +/- 0.2 and 0.4 +/- 0.4 respectively). Differences between the flowmeter and CGO were not significant (P = 0.1). Accuracy of flows via the Y-piece were worse than via the flowmeter and CGO (P < 0.0001). Flows via the Y-piece were less than those dialed, especially at high rates. With a partially open APL valve, flow depended upon pressure in the anaesthetic circuit, not upon the flow set. With the APL valve completely open, no flow occurred. CONCLUSIONS: To deliver supplemental oxygen in the operating theatre when there are no distinct flowmeters, nasal prongs should be attached to the CGO of the anaesthetic machine or a flowmeter on a portable E-tank oxygen cylinder. Connecting nasal prongs to the Y-piece of a circle system should be avoided since oxygen delivery is less than dialed, especially when the APL valve is open.

Genome-wide methylation patterns in normal and uniparental early mouse embryos.

In the normal diploid mouse embryo, active demethylation of the paternal genome but not of the maternal genome occurs within only a few hours and in a highly coordinated fashion as the zygote proceeds through the first G1 phase. This zygotic demethylation may be necessary to reprogram the sperm genome for somatic development. Immunofluorescence staining with an antibody against 5-methylcytosine shows that the cellular machinery of the fertilized egg cannot demethylate the second maternal genome in parthenogenetic, gynogenetic and triploid digynic embryos or remethylate the additional (already demethylated) paternal genome in androgenetic and triploid diandric embryos. This suggests that differential zygotic demethylation results from differences in the remodeling of paternal and maternal chromatin structures after fertilization, i.e. sperm nuclear decondensation and protamine-histone exchange. A proportion of embryos derived from normal matings display abnormal methylation patterns some of which are indistinguishable from those in androgenetic or gynogenetic embryos. We conclude that methylation reprogramming defects in mammalian zygotes contribute to the high incidence of early pregnancy failure.

Deletion of a silencer element disrupts H19 imprinting independently of a DNA methylation epigenetic switch.

The H19 imprinted gene is silenced when paternally inherited and active only when inherited maternally. This is thought to involve a cis-acting control region upstream of H19 that is responsible for regulating a number of functions including DNA methylation, asynchronous replication of parental chromosomes and an insulator. Here we report on the function of a 1.2 kb upstream element in the mouse, which was previously shown to function as a bi-directional silencer in Drosophila. The cre-loxP-mediated targeted deletion of the 1.2 kb region had no effect on the maternal allele. However, there was loss of silencing of the paternal allele in many endodermal and other tissues. The pattern of expression was very similar to the expression pattern conferred by the enhancer elements downstream of H19. We could not detect an effect on the expression of the neighbouring imprinted Igf2 gene, suggesting that the proposed boundary element insulating this gene from the downstream enhancers was unaffected. Despite derepression of the paternal H19 allele, the deletion surprisingly did not affect the differential DNA methylation of the locus, which displayed an appropriate epigenetic switch in the parental germlines. Furthermore, the characteristic asynchronous pattern of DNA replication at H19 was also not disrupted by the deletion, suggesting that the sequences that mediate this were also intact. The silencer is therefore part of a complex cis-regulatory region upstream of the H19 gene and acts specifically to ensure the repression of the paternal allele, without a predominant effect on the epigenetic switch in the germline.

A conserved imprinting control region at the HYMAI/ZAC domain is implicated in transient neonatal diabetes mellitus.

Transient neonatal diabetes mellitus (TNDM) is associated with intra-uterine growth retardation, dehydration and a lack of insulin. Some TNDM patients exhibit paternal uniparental disomy (UPD) of chromosome 6q24, where at least two imprinted genes, HYMAI and ZAC, have so far been characterized. Here we show that the differentially methylated CpG island that partially overlaps mZac1 and mHymai at the syntenic mouse locus is a likely imprinting control region (ICR) for the approximately 120--200 kb domain. The region is unmethylated in sperm but probably methylated in oocytes, a difference that persists between parental alleles throughout pre- and post-implantation development. We also show that within this ICR, there is a region that exhibits a high degree of homology between mouse and human. Using a reporter expression assay, we demonstrate that this conserved region acts as a strong transcriptional repressor when methylated. Finally, we provide in vivo evidence that in the majority of TNDM patients with a normal karyotype, there is a loss of methylation within the highly homologous region. We propose that this ICR regulates expression of imprinted genes within the domain; epigenetic or genetic mutations of this region probably result in TNDM, possibly by affecting expression of ZAC in the pancreas and/or the pituitary.

Imprinted expression of neuronatin from modified BAC transgenes reveals regulation by distinct and distant enhancers.

Neuronatin (Nnat) is an imprinted gene that is expressed exclusively from the paternal allele while the maternal allele is silent and methylated. The Nnat locus exhibits some unique features compared with other imprinted domains. Unlike the majority of imprinted genes, which are organised in clusters and coordinately regulated, Nnat does not appear to be closely linked to other imprinted genes. Also unusually, Nnat is located within an 8-kb intron of the Bc10 gene, which generates a biallelically expressed, antisense transcript. A similar organisation is conserved at the human NNAT locus on chromosome 20. Nnat expression is first detected at E8.5 in rhombomeres 3 and 5, and subsequently, expression is widespread within postmitotic neuronal tissues. Using modified BAC transgenes, we show that imprinted expression of Nnat at ectopic sites requires, at most, an 80-kb region around the gene. Furthermore, reporter transgenes reveal distinct and dispersed cis-regulatory elements that direct tissue-specific expression and these are predominantly upstream of the region that confers allele-specific expression.