Three reasons why parental burnout is more prevalent in individualistic countries: a mediation study in 36 countries.

PURPOSE: The prevalence of parental burnout, a condition that has severe consequences for both parents and children, varies dramatically across countries and is highest in Western countries characterized by high individualism. METHOD: In this study, we examined the mediators of the relationship between individualism measured at the country level and parental burnout measured at the individual level in 36 countries (16,059 parents). RESULTS: The results revealed three mediating mechanisms, that is, self-discrepancies between socially prescribed and actual parental selves, high agency and self-directed socialization goals, and low parental task sharing, by which individualism leads to an increased risk of burnout among parents. CONCLUSION: The results confirm that the three mediators under consideration are all involved, and that mediation was higher for self-discrepancies between socially prescribed and actual parental selves, then parental task sharing, and lastly self-directed socialization goals. The results provide some important indications of how to prevent parental burnout at the societal level in Western countries.

How Do Late Adults Experience Meaning During the COVID-19 Lockdown? The Role of Intrinsic Goals.

Late adults differ in the degree to which their mental health is impacted by the COVID-19 crisis, with interindividual differences in their capacity to mobilize coping resources playing an important role. Therefore, the search for inner sources of resilience is important to understand late adults' adaptation to this crisis. Based on Goal Content Theory, a mini-theory within the broader Self-Determination Theory, this study aimed to examine whether older adults' valuation and attainment of intrinsic goals represent such a source of resilience. Intrinsic goals would form a solid foundation to experience a sense of meaning during this crisis, which, in turn, relates to higher well-being (i.e., life satisfaction and vitality) and lower ill-being (i.e., symptoms of depression, anxiety, and loneliness). During the second month of the lockdown period in Belgium, 693 older adults (Mage = 70.06, SD = 4.48, range: 65-89 years, 62.1% female) filled out online questionnaires concerning the study variables. Structural equation modeling showed that intrinsic goal attainment and goal importance related positively to experiences of meaning in life which, in turn, were related to higher levels of well-being and lower levels of ill-being. No evidence was found for an interaction effect between intrinsic goal attainment and goal importance. Supporting late adults' pursuit and attainment of meaningful intrinsic goals relates to their well-being and may potentially strengthen their resilience in times of crisis.

Parenting and Child Personality as Modifiers of the Psychosocial Development of Youth with Cerebral Palsy.

This two-year longitudinal study addressed the joint contribution of parent-rated parenting behaviors and child personality on psychosocial outcomes in 118 families of children with Cerebral Palsy (M age Time 1 = 10.9 years old, 64.4% boys). Latent change modeling revealed intra-individual changes in children's psychosocial development as internalizing and externalizing behaviors increased from the first to the second assessment and psychosocial strengths increased from the second to the third assessment, whereas externally controlling and autonomy-supportive parenting behavior remained stable over time. Externally controlling parenting related to higher levels of, and increases in behavioral problems, with these associations being most pronounced among children low on Extraversion, Conscientiousness, or Imagination. Autonomy-supportive parenting related to higher levels of psychosocial strengths, with this association being most pronounced among children high on Emotional Stability.

Care competencies in adolescents: Development of a new measure and relationships with well-being.

Worldwide, we observe an increasing focus on fostering well-being in adolescents. This is reflected in growing research in the field of care. However, empirical research is lacking that focuses on the relationship between components of care: receiving care, self-care and extending care. This lack of research is mirrored in the lack of valid measures for assessing care competencies in educational contexts. The present research, therefore, has four goals: 1) to create a valid and reliable scale assessing levels of care competencies based on the multifaceted and multidimensional concept of care; 2) to explore the relationship between socio-demographic characteristics and care competencies in adolescents; 3) to examine the psychological outcomes associated with different levels of care competencies in adolescents; 4) to explore the interaction of the three care dimensions in predicting adolescents' well-being. Based on data from 742 adolescents, a reliable and valid scale could be developed with six subscales: Receiving care, self-care and extending care, with each of them falling apart in care competencies and care failures. Gender, age and academic achievement were related to care competencies/failures. Findings support the link between adolescents' well-being and care competencies/failures. These results have implications for promoting adolescents' well-being through school-based care-cultivation programs.

Language growth in very young siblings at risk for autism spectrum disorder.

BACKGROUND: Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) show substantial variability in their language development. Language problems are highly prevalent in these children. In addition, the quality of early language abilities contributes to the overall development of these children and is highly predictive of their adult outcome. Yet, little is known about language development in children at risk of ASD during the first years of life. AIMS: To compare early receptive language (RL) and expressive language (EL) development in children at risk of ASD and determine predictors of language development. METHODS & PROCEDURES: Developmental trajectories of RL and EL were investigated from 10 to 36 months of age in younger siblings of typically developing children (LR-sibs, N = 30) and in younger siblings of children with ASD (HR-sibs, N = 31) using the Mullen Scales of Early Learning. Furthermore, both child and demographic characteristics were examined as possible predictors of language development. OUTCOMES & RESULTS: Both groups showed similar growth curves for RL and EL and the majority of the children showed average (within ±1.5 SD of the mean) or above-average language abilities. Nevertheless, the mean growth of EL was lower and the variation in growth of both RL and EL was higher in HR-sibs than in LR-sibs. Furthermore, early child characteristics were predictive of language development in both groups. Yet, some child characteristics seemed to be of more importance in HR-sibs than in LR-sibs. Consequently, lower non-verbal abilities at 10 months in both groups and a higher degree of ASD characteristics at 14 months in HR-sibs may be indicative of difficulties in language development. CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS: HR-sibs show more variation in their language development than LR-sibs during the first 3 years of life. The majority of HR-sibs, however, did not present with below-average language abilities. Yet, early characteristics of ASD may be a red flag for difficulties in the language development of HR-sibs.

Leadership in nursing and midwifery: Activities and associated competencies of advanced practice nurses and midwives.

AIM: To explore the practice profile and competencies of advanced practice nurses (APNs) and midwives (AMPs), and factors associated with task non-execution. BACKGROUND: Advanced practitioner roles are increasingly implemented internationally. Unofficial role introduction led to confusion regarding task performance. Studies examining associations between APNs'/AMPs' task performance and competency levels, and factors associated with task non-execution are lacking. METHOD: A cross-sectional study among APNs/AMPs in Flanders (Belgium) explored tasks and competencies in seven domains: clinical/professional leadership, change management/innovation, research, clinical expertise/guidance/coaching, consultation/consultancy, multidisciplinary cooperation/care coordination and ethical decision-making. Task performance and competency level frequencies were calculated. Regression analysis identified factors associated with task non-execution on domain/item level. RESULTS: Participants (n = 63) executed tasks in all domains. Task non-execution related to research and clinical expertise was associated with work setting; task non-execution regarding care coordination and ethical decision-making was associated with competency perception. Several tasks were performed by few APNs/AMPs despite many feeling competent. Five of ten tasks performed by fewest participants belonged to the leadership domain. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING AND MIDWIFERY MANAGEMENT: Supervisors could play an important part in APNs'/AMPs' role development, especially regarding leadership and tasks executed by few participants. Future studies should provide in-depth knowledge on task non-execution.

Don't worry, be happy: The role of positive emotionality and adaptive emotion regulation strategies for youth depressive symptoms.

OBJECTIVES: Low positive emotionality (PE) represents a temperamental vulnerability to depression in youth. Until now, little research has examined the mechanisms linking PE to depressive symptoms. Starting from integrated cognitive-affective models of depression, we aimed to study adaptive emotion regulation (ER) as a key underlying mechanism in the temperament-depression relationship. METHODS: This study investigated whether adaptive ER strategies mediate the association between PE and depressive symptoms in a large community-based sample of youth, using a cross-sectional design. Participants were 1,655 youth (54% girls; 7-16 years, M = 11.41, SD = 1.88) who filled out a set of questionnaires assessing temperament, adaptive ER strategies, and depressive symptoms. RESULTS: Results revealed that low PE was significantly related to higher depressive symptoms among youth and that a lack of total adaptive ER abilities mediated this relationship. More specifically, the infrequent use of problem-solving appeared to be of significant importance. Problems in positive refocusing and a deficient use of forgetting mediated the relationships between low PE and high negative emotionality (NE) in predicting depressive symptoms. Reappraisal and distraction were not significant mediators. CONCLUSION: Results highlight the need to account for temperamental PE and adaptive ER strategies when studying youth depression. The findings contribute to a more nuanced understanding on the differential role of temperamental risk factors for developing depressive symptoms at an early stage and advocate for greater attention to adaptive ER strategies. PRACTITIONER POINTS: Clinical interventions for youth depression may be improved by incorporating adaptive emotion regulation (ER) strategies and enhancing positive emotions. Youth low in positive emotionality (PE) may especially benefit from learning adaptive ER skills. Clinical practitioners should focus on alleviating negative emotions and enhancing positive emotions, especially among youth low in PE.

Adolescent psychopathology in times of change: Introduction to the special issue.

The aim of this special issue is to understand better the many changes in adolescent psychopathology have taken place over the last decades. The factors associated with adjustment problems and psychopathology in adolescence today are not necessarily the same as the factors that predicted problems and psychopathology in the past. But the basic strategies for connecting negative experiences with adolescent psychopathology remain as important today as they were for understanding adolescent psychopathology decades ago. This is well exemplified in the studies included in this Special Issue. What all this studies have in common is that parenting and the family environment are assumed to play a key role in adolescents' adjustment and psychopathology. Finally, given that all papers in this special issue are based on conference presentations at the 15th Biennial Conference of the European Association for Research on Adolescence (EARA), some more information on that conference in included in this introduction.

Intimacy development in late adolescence: Longitudinal associations with perceived parental autonomy support and adolescents' self-worth.

The present longitudinal study tested for the role of perceived parental autonomy-support and late adolescents' self-worth in their intimacy development. A sample of 497 Belgian late adolescents (Mage = 17.9, 43.5% girls) participated in this two-wave study. Results indicated that perceived autonomy-supportive parenting did not relate significantly to change in adolescents' experienced intimacy (in terms of closeness and mutuality), but was associated with a decrease in unmitigated agency (an excessive focus on the self) and unmitigated communion (an excessive focus on the other) across time. Adolescents' self-worth predicted an increase in experienced intimacy and a decrease in unmitigated agency and communion, and the initial level of experienced intimacy predicted an increase in self-worth. Finally, results suggested that adolescents' self-worth may mediate some of the longitudinal relations between perceived parental autonomy-support and adolescents' intimate functioning. No evidence was found for moderation by romantic involvement, gender or age.

Examining bidirectional relationships between parenting and child maladjustment in youth with autism spectrum disorder: A 9-year longitudinal study.

Longitudinal bidirectional effects between parents and children are usually studied in samples of typically developing children, but remain understudied in families with a child with autism spectrum disorder. This three-wave longitudinal study examined how parents and children with autism spectrum disorder influence one another, relying on parent reports of parenting behaviors and children's problem behaviors across 9 years, in a sample of 139 youngsters (M age Time 1 = 10.2 years, 83% boys). Cross-lagged analyses indicated that children's externalizing problems at Time 1 predicted negative controlling parenting 6 years later (Time 2) that in turn predicted externalizing problems 3 years later (Time 3). Negative parental control at Time 1 also increased the risk for internalizing problems at Time 2. It was surprising that externalizing problems at Time 2 also predicted positive parental involvement at Time 3. Thus, although results indicate that externalizing problems generally elicit maladaptive reactions in parents, this study also suggests that parents adjust their way of reacting to externalizing child problems as their child reaches adolescence/emerging adulthood. Implications for future research on parenting dynamics in families with a child with autism spectrum disorder are discussed.

Ruminative exploration and reconsideration of commitment as risk factors for suboptimal identity development in adolescence and emerging adulthood.

Rather than looking at quantitative differences in exploration and commitment as indicators of (un)healthy identity formation, this study focuses on two qualitatively different forms of exploration using cross-sectional data of 4259 Belgian adolescents and emerging adults (aged 14-30 years; 64% female). First, ruminative exploration or brooding and worrying without being able to decide what you want in life, emerged as a risk factor for weak commitments and maladjustment. Its strong relationship with maladjustment was only slightly buffered by healthy forms of exploration. Second, reconsideration of commitment or feeling uncertain about current commitments and start looking for new commitments, showed similar negative relationships with commitment making and identification. Moreover, reconsideration of commitment rendered healthy forms of exploration ineffective (i.e., not predicting strong commitments or identifications with life choices). By focusing on the exact meaning and role of these two risk factors, this study sheds light on the dark side of identity formation and might be relevant for counselors working with youth that struggle with identity formation.

Shedding light on the dark side of identity: Introduction to the special issue.

The aim of this special issue is to shed light in the dark side of identity formation in adolescence and emerging adulthood, that is, to provide some understanding in what exactly can go wrong in identity development. After summarizing the recent developments in identity development literature, in this introduction the main findings of all thirteen empirical papers are summarized into three overarching themes: (1) lack of identity integration as a risk factor, (2) reconsideration of commitment as a sign of identity uncertainty, and (3) ruminative exploration as another risk factor undermining healthy identity development. Finally, given that all papers in this special issue are based on conference presentations at the 14th Biennial Conference of the European Association for Research on Adolescence (EARA), some more information on that conference is included in this introduction.

Identity processes and statuses in post-Soviet Georgia: Exploration processes operate differently.

Identity formation is one of the main developmental tasks of emerging adulthood. Based on quantitative data on a five-dimensional model of identity formation, we concluded that the identity formation process has some different features in the Republic of Georgia than it does in many Western countries. Results obtained from young Georgian adults (N = 295, 82.6% female) yielded four exploration processes instead of three, which is in line with the recent Swiss findings. A key difference between Georgia and the Western contexts, however, is that exploration in breadth is highly correlated with ruminative exploration. Cluster analysis, which produced six identity clusters, also supported this pattern. Achievement, the most adjusted cluster in Western contexts, was relatively low on exploration in breadth. We discuss ways in which the Georgian transition from Soviet communism to a more globalized society may contribute to limited opportunities for identity exploration and may add some tension to the identity development process.

Where Do the Cultural Differences in Dynamics of Controlling Parenting Lie? Adolescents as Active Agents in the Perception of and Coping with Parental Behavior.

There is ongoing debate about the universal or culture-specific role of controlling parenting in children's and adolescents' development. This study addressed the possibility of cultural variability in how controlling parenting practices are perceived and dealt with. Specifically, we examined Belgian (N = 341) and Chinese (N = 316) adolescents' perceptions of and reactions towards a vignette depicting parental guilt-induction, relative to generally controlling and autonomy supportive vignettes. Whereas Belgian adolescents perceived guilt-induction to be as controlling as generally controlling parental behavior, Chinese adolescents' perception of guilt-induction as controlling was more moderate. Belgian and Chinese adolescents also showed some similarities and differences in their responses to the feelings of need frustration following from the controlling practices, with compulsive compliance for instance being more common in Chinese adolescents. Discussion focuses on cross-cultural similarities and differences in dynamics of controlling parenting.

Psychometric Properties of the BIS/BAS Scales and the SPSRQ in Flemish Adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: Gray's Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) is a frequently used model of personality that is relevant to the period of adolescence. However, the psychometric properties of the most frequently used questionnaires to measure the RST-constructs, namely the Behavioural Inhibition System and Behavioural Activation System Scales (BIS/BAS Scales) and the Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire (SPSRQ), are rarely examined in samples of adolescents. Therefore, the goal of the present study was to examine the two-factor structure, reliability and convergent validity of the BIS/BAS Scales and SPSRQ in a Flemish adolescent community sample. METHOD: A sample of 579 adolescents (39.5% boys; 14-19 years) was recruited. The proposed two-factor structure was assessed using Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling. Reliability was evaluated using internal consistency and construct validity was examined with the correlations between the two questionnaires and with the Temperament and Character Inventory-short form (TCI-SF). RESULTS: After the removal of problematic items, and the addition of correlated errors, all indices indicated a good fit for the two-factor structure of the modified BIS/BAS Scales. For the modified SPSRQ, three fit indices indicated a good model fit, while a fourth fit index was slightly below the cut-off score of an adequate model fit. Internal consistency of both questionnaires was sufficient. In general, the associations with scales of the TCI-SF were as expected, with positive correlations between BIS-related scales, and between BAS-related scales of all three instruments. DISCUSSION: In Flemish adolescents, the use of a two-factor model to analyze data gathered with the modified BIS/BAS Scales or modified SPSRQ seems appropriate.

Rebels with a cause? Adolescent defiance from the perspective of reactance theory and self-determination theory.

The present investigation focused on adolescents' defiance against parents by drawing upon psychological reactance theory (Brehm, 1966) and self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Psychological reactance would be elicited when freedom is taken away, thereby motivating individuals to engage in oppositional behavior. Throughout four studies (total N = 1,472, age ranging between 12 and 21 years), it was examined whether a controlling parenting style related to adolescents' experiences of autonomy need frustration (i.e., pressure) and reactance. Reactance, in turn, would relate to more externalizing and internalizing problems. Support was obtained for these associations in community and clinical samples, making use of different informants, and controlling for responsiveness and rule setting. A vignette-based study provided further support. The discussion highlights theoretical and clinical implications.

Meaning in Life and depressive symptoms: a person-oriented approach in residential and community-dwelling older adults.

OBJECTIVES: In current society, an increasing population of older adults and a high prevalence of depressive symptoms in late life is noticeable. A possible protective resource is 'Meaning in Life'. The objective of this study is to identify from a person-oriented view (a) Meaning in Life-profiles, based on Presence of Meaning and Search for Meaning dimensions, and (b) their associations with depressive symptoms. METHODS: A sample of 205 residential older adults (M = 83.20 years, SD = 7.26) and 280 community-dwelling older adults (M = 75.98 years, SD = 4.76) completed questionnaires of Meaning in Life and depressive symptoms. First, cluster analyses examined potential Meaning in Life-profiles. Second, analyses of variance tested associations between these distinct profiles and depressive symptoms. RESULTS: In both samples, three distinguishable profiles emerged, a 'Low Presence Low Search', a 'High Presence High Search' and a 'High Presence Low Search'. Furthermore, older adults with a High Presence Low Search profile witnessed less depressive symptoms, compared to those with a Low Presence Low Search profile. Residential older adults within the High Presence High Search cluster scored in-between the two other clusters for depressive symptoms. However, community-dwelling older adults within this cluster reported similar levels of depressive symptoms as the High Presence Low Search group. CONCLUSION: Similar Meaning in Life-profiles were detected in residential as well as community-dwelling older adults. In both samples, older adults with a High Presence Low Search profile reported less depressive feelings, pointing to the importance of spontaneously experiencing Meaning in Life in this life stage.

The transition to adulthood around the Mediterranean: contributions of the special issue.

This analysis of the papers in the special issue on the transition to adulthood around the Mediterranean calls attention to the role of the family of origin in the transition itself. All the papers analyzed a specific aspect of family relationships, focusing especially on the parent-child relationship. Moreover, several outcomes were considered, such as identity, psychological well-being, life satisfaction, and criteria of adulthood, highlighting the multidimensional features of the transitional phase young people are facing. Together, these papers make a great contribution to the current literature, especially for the ones linked to the Mediterranean area, and provide both foundation and new paths for future research.

Converging identities: dimensions of acculturation and personal identity status among immigrant college students.

The present study was designed to ascertain the extent to which dimensions of acculturation would differ across personal identity statuses in a sample of 2,411 first- and second-generation, immigrant, college-attending emerging adults. Participants from 30 colleges and universities around the United States completed measures of personal identity processes, as well as of heritage and American cultural practices, values, and identifications. Cluster-analytic procedures were used to classify participants into personal identity statuses based on the personal identity processes. Results indicated that, across ethnic groups, individuals in the achieved and searching moratorium statuses reported the greatest endorsement of heritage and American cultural practices, values, and identifications; and individuals in the carefree diffusion status reported the lowest endorsement of all the cultural variables under study. These results are discussed in terms of the convergence between personal identity and cultural identity processes.