Clonally expanded EOMES+ Tr1-like cells in primary and metastatic tumors are associated with disease progression.

Regulatory T (Treg) cells are a barrier for tumor immunity and a target for immunotherapy. Using single-cell transcriptomics, we found that CD4+ T cells infiltrating primary and metastatic colorectal cancer and non-small-cell lung cancer are highly enriched for two subsets of comparable size and suppressor function comprising forkhead box protein P3+ Treg and eomesodermin homolog (EOMES)+ type 1 regulatory T (Tr1)-like cells also expressing granzyme K and chitinase-3-like protein 2. EOMES+ Tr1-like cells, but not Treg cells, were clonally related to effector T cells and were clonally expanded in primary and metastatic tumors, which is consistent with their proliferation and differentiation in situ. Using chitinase-3-like protein 2 as a subset signature, we found that the EOMES+ Tr1-like subset correlates with disease progression but is also associated with response to programmed cell death protein 1-targeted immunotherapy. Collectively, these findings highlight the heterogeneity of Treg cells that accumulate in primary tumors and metastases and identify a new prospective target for cancer immunotherapy.

A Mad2-Mediated Translational Regulatory Mechanism Promoting S-Phase Cyclin Synthesis Controls Origin Firing and Survival to Replication Stress.

Cell survival to replication stress depends on the activation of the Mec1ATR-Rad53 checkpoint response that protects the integrity of stalled forks and controls the origin firing program. Here we found that Mad2, a member of the spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC), contributes to efficient origin firing and to cell survival in response to replication stress. We show that Rad53 and Mad2 promote S-phase cyclin expression through different mechanisms: while Rad53 influences Clb5,6 degradation, Mad2 promotes their protein synthesis. We found that Mad2 co-sediments with polysomes and modulates the association of the translation inhibitor Caf204E-BP with the translation machinery and the initiation factor eIF4E. This Mad2-dependent translational regulatory process does not depend on other SAC proteins. Altogether our observations indicate that Mad2 has an additional function outside of mitosis to control DNA synthesis and collaborates with the Mec1-Rad53 regulatory axis to allow cell survival in response to replication stress.

Translational Control of Metabolism and Cell Cycle Progression in Hepatocellular Carcinoma.

The liver is a metabolic hub characterized by high levels of protein synthesis. Eukaryotic initiation factors, eIFs, control the first phase of translation, initiation. Initiation factors are essential for tumor progression and, since they regulate the translation of specific mRNAs downstream of oncogenic signaling cascades, may be druggable. In this review, we address the issue of whether the massive translational machinery of liver cells contributes to liver pathology and to the progression of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC); it represents a valuable biomarker and druggable target. First, we observe that the common markers of HCC cells, such as phosphorylated ribosomal protein S6, belong to the ribosomal and translational apparatus. This fact is in agreement with observations that demonstrate a huge amplification of the ribosomal machinery during the progression to HCC. Some translation factors, such as eIF4E and eIF6, are then harnessed by oncogenic signaling. In particular, the action of eIF4E and eIF6 is particularly important in HCC when driven by fatty liver pathologies. Indeed, both eIF4E and eIF6 amplify at the translational level the production and accumulation of fatty acids. As it is evident that abnormal levels of these factors drive cancer, we discuss their therapeutic value.

Inhibition of eIF6 Activity Reduces Hepatocellular Carcinoma Growth: An In Vivo and In Vitro Study.

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is characterized by the accumulation of lipids in the liver. Given the high prevalence of NAFLD, its evolution to nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is of global concern. Therapies for managing NASH-driven HCC can benefit from targeting factors that play a continuous role in NAFLD evolution to HCC. Recent work has shown that postprandial liver translation exacerbates lipid accumulation through the activity of a translation factor, eukaryotic initiation factor 6 (eIF6). Here, we test the effect of eIF6 inhibition on the progression of HCC. Mice heterozygous for eIF6 express half the level of eIF6 compared to wt mice and are resistant to the formation of HCC nodules upon exposure to a high fat/high sugar diet combined with liver damage. Histology showed that nodules in eIF6 het mice were smaller with reduced proliferation compared to wt nodules. By using an in vitro model of human HCC, we confirm that eIF6 depletion reduces the growth of HCC spheroids. We also tested three pharmacological inhibitors of eIF6 activity-eIFsixty-1, eIFsixty-4, and eIFsixty-6-and all three reduced eIF6 binding to 60S ribosomes and limited the growth of HCC spheroids. Thus, inhibition of eIF6 activity is feasible and limits HCC formation.

Modulating eIF6 levels unveils the role of translation in ecdysone biosynthesis during Drosophila development.

During development, ribosome biogenesis and translation reach peak activities, due to impetuous cell proliferation. Current models predict that protein synthesis elevation is controlled by transcription factors and signalling pathways. Developmental models addressing translation factors overexpression effects are lacking. Eukaryotic Initiation Factor 6 (eIF6) is necessary for ribosome biogenesis and efficient translation. eIF6 is a single gene, conserved from yeasts to mammals, suggesting a tight regulation need. We generated a Drosophila melanogaster model of eIF6 upregulation, leading to a boost in general translation and the shut-down of the ecdysone biosynthetic pathway. Indeed, translation modulation in S2 cells showed that translational rate and ecdysone biosynthesis are inversely correlated. In vivo, eIF6-driven alterations delayed Programmed Cell Death (PCD), resulting in aberrant phenotypes, partially rescued by ecdysone administration. Our data show that eIF6 triggers a translation program with far-reaching effects on metabolism and development, stressing the driving and central role of translation.

SBDS-Deficient Cells Have an Altered Homeostatic Equilibrium due to Translational Inefficiency Which Explains their Reduced Fitness and Provides a Logical Framework for Intervention.

Ribosomopathies are a family of inherited disorders caused by mutations in genes necessary for ribosomal function. Shwachman-Diamond Bodian Syndrome (SDS) is an autosomal recessive disease caused, in most patients, by mutations of the SBDS gene. SBDS is a protein required for the maturation of 60S ribosomes. SDS patients present exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, neutropenia, chronic infections, and skeletal abnormalities. Later in life, patients are prone to myelodisplastic syndrome and acute myeloid leukemia (AML). It is unknown why patients develop AML and which cellular alterations are directly due to the loss of the SBDS protein. Here we derived mouse embryonic fibroblast lines from an SbdsR126T/R126T mouse model. After their immortalization, we reconstituted them by adding wild type Sbds. We then performed a comprehensive analysis of cellular functions including colony formation, translational and transcriptional RNA-seq, stress and drug sensitivity. We show that: 1. Mutant Sbds causes a reduction in cellular clonogenic capability and oncogene-induced transformation. 2. Mutant Sbds causes a marked increase in immature 60S subunits, limited impact on mRNA specific initiation of translation, but reduced global protein synthesis capability. 3. Chronic loss of SBDS activity leads to a rewiring of gene expression with reduced ribosomal capability, but increased lysosomal and catabolic activity. 4. Consistently with the gene signature, we found that SBDS loss causes a reduction in ATP and lactate levels, and increased susceptibility to DNA damage. Combining our data, we conclude that a cell-specific fragile phenotype occurs when SBDS protein drops below a threshold level, and propose a new interpretation of the disease.

Human macrophage ferroportin biology and the basis for the ferroportin disease.

Ferroportin (FPN1) is the sole iron exporter in mammals, but its cell-specific function and regulation are still elusive. This study examined FPN1 expression in human macrophages, the cells that are primarily responsible on a daily basis for plasma iron turnover and are central in the pathogenesis of ferroportin disease (FD), the disease attributed to lack-of-function FPN1 mutations. We characterized FPN1 protein expression and traffic by confocal microscopy, western blotting, gel filtration, and immunoprecipitation studies in macrophages from control blood donors (donor) and patients with either FPN1 p.A77D, p.G80S, and p.Val162del lack-of-function or p.A69T gain-of-function mutations. We found that in normal macrophages, FPN1 cycles in the early endocytic compartment does not multimerize and is promptly degraded by hepcidin (Hepc), its physiological inhibitor, within 3-6 hours. In FD macrophages, endogenous FPN1 showed a similar localization, except for greater accumulation in lysosomes. However, in contrast with previous studies using overexpressed mutant protein in cell lines, FPN1 could still reach the cell surface and be normally internalized and degraded upon exposure to Hepc. However, when FD macrophages were exposed to large amounts of heme iron, in contrast to donor and p.A69T macrophages, FPN1 could no longer reach the cell surface, leading to intracellular iron retention. CONCLUSION: FPN1 cycles as a monomer within the endocytic/plasma membrane compartment and responds to its physiological inhibitor, Hepc, in both control and FD cells. However, in FD, FPN1 fails to reach the cell surface when cells undergo high iron turnover. Our findings provide a basis for the FD characterized by a preserved iron transfer in the enterocytes (i.e., cells with low iron turnover) and iron retention in cells exposed to high iron flux, such as liver and spleen macrophages. (Hepatology 2017;65:1512-1525).

Long non-coding antisense RNA controls Uchl1 translation through an embedded SINEB2 repeat.

Most of the mammalian genome is transcribed. This generates a vast repertoire of transcripts that includes protein-coding messenger RNAs, long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and repetitive sequences, such as SINEs (short interspersed nuclear elements). A large percentage of ncRNAs are nuclear-enriched with unknown function. Antisense lncRNAs may form sense-antisense pairs by pairing with a protein-coding gene on the opposite strand to regulate epigenetic silencing, transcription and mRNA stability. Here we identify a nuclear-enriched lncRNA antisense to mouse ubiquitin carboxy-terminal hydrolase L1 (Uchl1), a gene involved in brain function and neurodegenerative diseases. Antisense Uchl1 increases UCHL1 protein synthesis at a post-transcriptional level, hereby identifying a new functional class of lncRNAs. Antisense Uchl1 activity depends on the presence of a 5' overlapping sequence and an embedded inverted SINEB2 element. These features are shared by other natural antisense transcripts and can confer regulatory activity to an artificial antisense to green fluorescent protein. Antisense Uchl1 function is under the control of stress signalling pathways, as mTORC1 inhibition by rapamycin causes an increase in UCHL1 protein that is associated to the shuttling of antisense Uchl1 RNA from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. Antisense Uchl1 RNA is then required for the association of the overlapping sense protein-coding mRNA to active polysomes for translation. These data reveal another layer of gene expression control at the post-transcriptional level.

The ribonuclease DIS3 promotes let-7 miRNA maturation by degrading the pluripotency factor LIN28B mRNA.

Multiple myeloma, the second most frequent hematologic tumor after lymphomas, is an incurable cancer. Recent sequencing efforts have identified the ribonuclease DIS3 as one of the most frequently mutated genes in this disease. DIS3 represents the catalytic subunit of the exosome, a macromolecular complex central to the processing, maturation and surveillance of various RNAs. miRNAs are an evolutionarily conserved class of small noncoding RNAs, regulating gene expression at post-transcriptional level. Ribonucleases, including Drosha, Dicer and XRN2, are involved in the processing and stability of miRNAs. However, the role of DIS3 on the regulation of miRNAs remains largely unknown. Here we found that DIS3 regulates the levels of the tumor suppressor let-7 miRNAs without affecting other miRNA families. DIS3 facilitates the maturation of let-7 miRNAs by reducing in the cytoplasm the RNA stability of the pluripotency factor LIN28B, a inhibitor of let-7 processing. DIS3 inactivation, through the increase of LIN28B and the reduction of mature let-7, enhances the translation of let-7 targets such as MYC and RAS leading to enhanced tumorigenesis. Our study establishes that the ribonuclease DIS3, targeting LIN28B, sustains the maturation of let-7 miRNAs and suggests the increased translation of critical oncogenes as one of the biological outcomes of DIS3 inactivation.

eIF6 anti-association activity is required for ribosome biogenesis, translational control and tumor progression.

Here we discuss the function of eukaryotic initiation factor 6 (eIF6; Tif6 in yeast). eIF6 binds 60S ribosomal subunits and blocks their joining to 40S. In this context, we propose that eIF6 impedes unproductive 80S formation, namely, the formation of 80S subunits without mRNA. Genetic evidence shows that eIF6 has a dual function: in yeast and mammals, nucleolar eIF6 is necessary for the biogenesis of 60S subunits. In mammals, cytoplasmic eIF6 is required for insulin and growth factor-stimulated translation. In contrast to other translation factors, eIF6 activity is not under mTOR control. The physiological significance of eIF6 impacts on cancer and on inherited Shwachman-Bodian-Diamond syndrome. eIF6 is overexpressed in specific human tumors. In a murine model of lymphomagenesis, eIF6 depletion leads to a striking increase of survival, without adverse effects. Shwachman-Bodian-Diamond syndrome is caused by loss of function of SBDS protein. In yeast, point mutations of Tif6, the yeast homolog of eIF6, rescue the quasi-lethal effect due to the loss of the SBDS homolog, Sdo1. We propose that eIF6 is a node regulator of ribosomal function and predict that prioritizing its pharmacological targeting will be of benefit in cancer and Shwachman-Bodian-Diamond syndrome. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Translation and Cancer.

Translational control by mTOR-independent routes: how eIF6 organizes metabolism.

Over the past few years, there has been a growing interest in the interconnection between translation and metabolism. Important oncogenic pathways, like those elicited by c-Myc transcription factor and mTOR kinase, couple the activation of the translational machinery with glycolysis and fatty acid synthesis. Eukaryotic initiation factor 6 (eIF6) is a factor necessary for 60S ribosome maturation. eIF6 acts also as a cytoplasmic translation initiation factor, downstream of growth factor stimulation. eIF6 is up-regulated in several tumor types. Data on mice models have demonstrated that eIF6 cytoplasmic activity is rate-limiting for Myc-induced lymphomagenesis. In spite of this, eIF6 is neither transcriptionally regulated by Myc, nor post-transcriptionally regulated by mTOR. eIF6 stimulates a glycolytic and fatty acid synthesis program necessary for tumor growth. eIF6 increases the translation of transcription factors necessary for lipogenesis, such as CEBP/ß, ATF4 and CEBP/δ. Insulin stimulation leads to an increase in translation and fat synthesis blunted by eIF6 deficiency. Paradoxycally, long-term inhibition of eIF6 activity increases insulin sensitivity, suggesting that the translational activation observed upon insulin and growth factors stimulation acts as a feed-forward mechanism regulating lipid synthesis. The data on the role that eIF6 plays in cancer and in insulin sensitivity make it a tempting pharmacological target for cancers and metabolic diseases. We speculate that eIF6 inhibition will be particularly effective especially when mTOR sensitivity to rapamycin is abrogated by RAS mutations.

Cytoskeletal proteins associate with components of the ribosomal maturation and translation apparatus in Xenopus stage I oocytes.

Actin-based cytoskeleton (CSK) and microtubules may bind to RNAs and related molecules implicated in translation. However, many questions remain to be answered regarding the role of cytoskeletal components in supporting the proteins involved in steps in the maturation and translation processes. Here, we performed co-immunoprecipitation and immunofluorescence to examine the association between spectrins, keratins and tubulin and proteins involved in 60S ribosomal maturation and translation in Xenopus stage I oocytes, including ribosomal rpl10, eukaryotic initiation factor 6 (Eif6), thesaurins A/B, homologs of the eEF1α elongation factor, and P0, the ribosomal stalk protein. We found that rpl10 and eif6 cross-reacted with the actin-based CSK and with tubulin. rpl10 co-localizes with spectrin, particularly in the perinuclear region. eif6 is similarly localized. Given that upon ribosomal maturation, the insertion of rpl10 into the 60S subunit occurs simultaneously with the release of eif6, one can hypothesise that actin-based CSK and microtubules provide the necessary scaffold for the insertion/release of these two molecules and, subsequently, for eif6 transport and binding to the mature 60S subunit. P0 and thesaurins cross-reacted with only spectrin and cytokeratins. Thesaurins aggregated at the oocyte periphery, rendering this a territory favourable site for protein synthesis; the CSK may support the interaction between thesaurins and sites of the translating ribosome. Moreover, given that the assembly of the ribosome stalk, where P0 is located, to the 60S subunit is essential for the release of eif6, it can be hypothesised that the CSK can facilitate the binding of the stalk to the 60S.

Eukaryotic initiation factor 6 is rate-limiting in translation, growth and transformation.

Cell growth and proliferation require coordinated ribosomal biogenesis and translation. Eukaryotic initiation factors (eIFs) control translation at the rate-limiting step of initiation. So far, only two eIFs connect extracellular stimuli to global translation rates: eIF4E acts in the eIF4F complex and regulates binding of capped messenger RNA to 40S subunits, downstream of growth factors, and eIF2 controls loading of the ternary complex on the 40S subunit and is inhibited on stress stimuli. No eIFs have been found to link extracellular stimuli to the activity of the large 60S ribosomal subunit. eIF6 binds 60S ribosomes precluding ribosome joining in vitro. However, studies in yeasts showed that eIF6 is required for ribosome biogenesis rather than translation. Here we show that mammalian eIF6 is required for efficient initiation of translation, in vivo. eIF6 null embryos are lethal at preimplantation. Heterozygous mice have 50% reduction of eIF6 levels in all tissues, and show reduced mass of hepatic and adipose tissues due to a lower number of cells and to impaired G1/S cell cycle progression. eIF6(+/-) cells retain sufficient nucleolar eIF6 and normal ribosome biogenesis. The liver of eIF6(+/-) mice displays an increase of 80S in polysomal profiles, indicating a defect in initiation of translation. Consistently, isolated hepatocytes have impaired insulin-stimulated translation. Heterozygous mouse embryonic fibroblasts recapitulate the organism phenotype and have normal ribosome biogenesis, reduced insulin-stimulated translation, and delayed G1/S phase progression. Furthermore, eIF6(+/-) cells are resistant to oncogene-induced transformation. Thus, eIF6 is the first eIF associated with the large 60S subunit that regulates translation in response to extracellular signals.

RACK1 depletion in a mouse model causes lethality, pigmentation deficits and reduction in protein synthesis efficiency.

The receptor for activated C-kinase 1 (RACK1) is a conserved structural protein of 40S ribosomes. Strikingly, deletion of RACK1 in yeast homolog Asc1 is not lethal. Mammalian RACK1 also interacts with many nonribosomal proteins, hinting at several extraribosomal functions. A knockout mouse for RACK1 has not previously been described. We produced the first RACK1 mutant mouse, in which both alleles of RACK1 gene are defective in RACK1 expression (ΔF/ΔF), in a pure C57 Black/6 background. In a sample of 287 pups, we observed no ΔF/ΔF mice (72 expected). Dissection and genotyping of embryos at various stages showed that lethality occurs at gastrulation. Heterozygotes (ΔF/+) have skin pigmentation defects with a white belly spot and hypopigmented tail and paws. ΔF/+ have a transient growth deficit (shown by measuring pup size at P11). The pigmentation deficit is partly reverted by p53 deletion, whereas the lethality is not. ΔF/+ livers have mild accumulation of inactive 80S ribosomal subunits by polysomal profile analysis. In ΔF/+ fibroblasts, protein synthesis response to extracellular and pharmacological stimuli is reduced. These results highlight the role of RACK1 as a ribosomal protein converging signaling to the translational apparatus.

The crosstalk between metabolism and translation.

Metabolism and mRNA translation represent critical steps involved in modulating gene expression and cellular physiology. Being the most energy-consuming process in the cell, mRNA translation is strictly linked to cellular metabolism and in synchrony with it. Indeed, several mRNAs for metabolic pathways are regulated at the translational level, resulting in translation being a coordinator of metabolism. On the other hand, there is a growing appreciation for how metabolism impacts several aspects of RNA biology. For example, metabolic pathways and metabolites directly control the selectivity and efficiency of the translational machinery, as well as post-transcriptional modifications of RNA to fine-tune protein synthesis. Consistently, alterations in the intricate interplay between translational control and cellular metabolism have emerged as a critical axis underlying human diseases. A better understanding of such events will foresee innovative therapeutic strategies in human disease states.

The Paradox of Ribosomal Insufficiency Coupled with Increased Cancer: Shifting the Perspective from the Cancer Cell to the Microenvironment.

Ribosomopathies are defined as inherited diseases in which ribosomal factors are mutated. In general, they present multiorgan symptoms. In spite of the fact that in cellular models, ribosomal insufficiency leads to a reduced rate of oncogenic transformation, patients affected by ribosomopathies present a paradoxical increase in cancer incidence. Several hypotheses that explain this paradox have been formulated, mostly on the assumption that altered ribosomes in a stem cell induce compensatory changes that lead to a cancer cell. For instance, the lack of a specific ribosomal protein can lead to the generation of an abnormal ribosome, an oncoribosome, that itself leads to altered translation and increased tumorigenesis. Alternatively, the presence of ribosomal stress may induce compensatory proliferation that in turns selects the loss of tumor suppressors such as p53. However, modern views on cancer have shifted the focus from the cancer cell to the tumor microenvironment. In particular, it is evident that human lymphocytes are able to eliminate mutant cells and contribute to the maintenance of cancer-free tissues. Indeed, many tumors develop in conditions of reduced immune surveillance. In this review, we summarize the current evidence and attempt to explain cancer and ribosomopathies from the perspective of the microenvironment.

Nanodynamo quantifies subcellular RNA dynamics revealing extensive coupling between steps of the RNA life cycle.

The coordinated action of transcriptional and post-transcriptional machineries shapes gene expression programs at steady state and determines their concerted response to perturbations. We have developed Nanodynamo, an experimental and computational workflow for quantifying the kinetic rates of nuclear and cytoplasmic steps of the RNA life cycle. Nanodynamo is based on mathematical modelling following sequencing of native RNA from cellular fractions and polysomes. We have applied this workflow to triple-negative breast cancer cells, revealing widespread post-transcriptional RNA processing that is mutually exclusive with its co-transcriptional counterpart. We used Nanodynamo to unravel the coupling between transcription, processing, export, decay and translation machineries. We have identified a number of coupling interactions within and between the nucleus and cytoplasm that largely contribute to coordinating how cells respond to perturbations that affect gene expression programs. Nanodynamo will be instrumental in unravelling the determinants and regulatory processes involved in the coordination of gene expression responses.

The Impact of 3D Nichoids and Matrix Stiffness on Primary Malignant Mesothelioma Cells.

Malignant mesothelioma is a type of cancer that affects the mesothelium. It is an aggressive and deadly form of cancer that is often caused by exposure to asbestos. At the molecular level, it is characterized by a low number of genetic mutations and high heterogeneity among patients. In this work, we analyzed the plasticity of gene expression of primary mesothelial cancer cells by comparing their properties on 2D versus 3D surfaces. First, we derived from primary human samples four independent primary cancer cells. Then, we used Nichoids, which are micro-engineered 3D substrates, as three-dimensional structures. Nichoids limit the dimension of adhering cells during expansion by counteracting cell migration between adjacent units of a substrate with their microarchitecture. Tumor cells grow effectively on Nichoids, where they show enhanced proliferation. We performed RNAseq analyses on all the samples and compared the gene expression pattern of Nichoid-grown tumor cells to that of cells grown in a 2D culture. The PCA analysis showed that 3D samples were more transcriptionally similar compared to the 2D ones. The 3D Nichoids induced a transcriptional remodeling that affected mainly genes involved in extracellular matrix assembly. Among these genes responsible for collagen formation, COL1A1 and COL5A1 exhibited elevated expression, suggesting changes in matrix stiffness. Overall, our data show that primary mesothelioma cells can be effectively expanded in Nichoids and that 3D growth affects the cells' tensegrity or the mechanical stability of their structure.

Reduced AKT/mTOR signaling and protein synthesis dysregulation in a Rett syndrome animal model.

Rett syndrome (RTT) is a neurodevelopmental disorder with no efficient treatment that is caused in the majority of cases by mutations in the gene methyl-CpG binding-protein 2 (MECP2). RTT becomes manifest after a period of apparently normal development and causes growth deceleration, severe psychomotor impairment and mental retardation. Effective animal models for RTT are available and show morphofunctional abnormalities of synaptic connectivity. However, the molecular consequences of MeCP2 disruption leading to neuronal and synaptic alterations are not known. Protein synthesis regulation via the mammalian target of the rapamycin (mTOR) pathway is crucial for synaptic organization, and its disruption is involved in a number of neurodevelopmental diseases. We investigated the phosphorylation of the ribosomal protein (rp) S6, whose activation is highly dependent from mTOR activity. Immunohistochemistry showed that rpS6 phosphorylation is severely affected in neurons across the cortical areas of Mecp2 mutants and that this alteration precedes the severe symptomatic phase of the disease. Moreover, we found a severe defect of the initiation of protein synthesis in the brain of presymptomatic Mecp2 mutant that was not restricted to a specific subset of transcripts. Finally, we provide evidence for a general dysfunction of the Akt/mTOR, but not extracellular-regulated kinase, signaling associated with the disease progression in mutant brains. Our results indicate that defects in the AKT/mTOR pathway are responsible for the altered translational control in Mecp2 mutant neurons and disclosed a novel putative biomarker of the pathological process. Importantly, this study provides a novel context of therapeutic interventions that can be designed to successfully restrain or ameliorate the development of RTT.

Growth defects and impaired cognitive-behavioral abilities in mice with knockout for Eif4h, a gene located in the mouse homolog of the Williams-Beuren syndrome critical region.

Protein synthesis is a tightly regulated, energy-consuming process. The control of mRNA translation into protein is fundamentally important for the fine-tuning of gene expression; additionally, precise translational control plays a critical role in many cellular processes, including development, cellular growth, proliferation, differentiation, synaptic plasticity, memory, and learning. Eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4h (Eif4h) encodes a protein involved in the process of protein synthesis, at the level of initiation phase. Its human homolog, WBSCR1, maps on 7q11.23, inside the 1.6 Mb region that is commonly deleted in patients affected by the Williams-Beuren syndrome, which is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by cardiovascular defects, cerebral dysplasias and a peculiar cognitive-behavioral profile. In this study, we generated knockout mice deficient in Eif4h. These mice displayed growth retardation with a significant reduction of body weight that began from the first week of postnatal development. Neuroanatomical profiling results generated by magnetic resonance imaging analysis revealed a smaller brain volume in null mice compared with controls as well as altered brain morphology, where anterior and posterior brain regions were differentially affected. The inactivation of Eif4h also led to a reduction in both the number and complexity of neurons. Behavioral studies revealed severe impairments of fear-related associative learning and memory formation. These alterations suggest that Eif4h might contribute to certain deficits associated with Williams-Beuren syndrome.