Dynamics of Cation-Induced Conformational Changes in Nanometer-Sized Uranyl Peroxide Clusters.

Conformational changes of the pyrophosphate (Pp)-functionalized uranyl peroxide nanocluster [(UO2)24(O2)24(P2O7)12]48- ({U24Pp12}), dissolved as a Li/Na salt, can be induced by the titration of alkali cations into solution. The most symmetric conformer of the molecule has idealized octahedral (Oh) molecular symmetry. One-dimensional 31P NMR experiments provide direct evidence that both K+ and Rb+ ions trigger an Oh-to-D4h conformational change within {U24Pp12}. Variable-temperature 31P NMR experiments conducted on partially titrated {U24Pp12} systems show an effect on the rates; increased activation enthalpy and entropy for the D4h-to-Oh transition is observed in the presence of Rb+ compared to K+. Two-dimensional, exchange spectroscopy 31P NMR revealed that magnetization transfer links chemically unique Pp bridges that are present in the D4h conformation and that this magnetization transfer occurs via a conformational rearrangement mechanism as the bridges interconvert between two symmetries. The interconversion is triggered by the departure and reentry of K (or Rb) cations out of and into the cavity of the cluster. This rearrangement allows Pp bridges to interconvert without the need to break bonds. Cs ions exhibit unique interactions with {U24Pp12} clusters and cause only minor changes in the solution 31P NMR signatures, suggesting that Oh symmetry is conserved. Single-crystal X-ray diffraction measurements reveal that the mixed Li/Na/Cs salt adopts D2h molecular symmetry, implying that while solvated, this cluster is in equilibrium with a more symmetric form. These results highlight the unusually flexible nature of the actinide-based {U24Pp12} and its sensitivity to countercations in solution.

Mn(III) species formed by the multi-copper oxidase MnxG investigated by electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy.

The multi-copper oxidase (MCO) MnxG from marine Bacillus bacteria plays an essential role in geochemical cycling of manganese by oxidizing Mn2+(aq) to form manganese oxide minerals at rates that are three to five orders of magnitude faster than abiotic rates. The MCO MnxG protein is isolated as part of a multi-protein complex, denoted as Mnx, which includes one MnxG unit and a hexamer of MnxE3F3 subunit. During the oxidation of Mn2+(aq) catalyzed by the Mnx protein complex, an enzyme-bound Mn(III) species was trapped recently in the presence of pyrophosphate (PP) and analyzed using parallel-mode electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy. Herein, we provide a full analysis of this enzyme-bound Mn(III) intermediate via temperature dependence studies and spectral simulations. This Mnx-bound Mn(III) species is characterized by a hyperfine-coupling value of A(55Mn) = 4.2 mT (corresponding to 120 MHz) and a negative zero-field splitting (ZFS) value of D = - 2.0 cm-1. These magnetic properties suggest that the Mnx-bound Mn(III) species could be either six-coordinate with a 5B1g ground state or square-pyramidal five-coordinate with a 5B1 ground state. In addition, as a control, Mn(III)PP is also analyzed by parallel-mode EPR spectroscopy. It exhibits distinctly different magnetic properties with a hyperfine-coupling value of A(55Mn) = 4.8 mT (corresponding to 140 MHz) and a negative ZFS value of D = - 2.5 cm-1. The different ZFS values suggest differences in ligand environment of Mnx-bound Mn(III) and aqueous Mn(III)PP species. These studies provide further insights into the mechanism of biological Mn2+(aq) oxidation.

Mn(II) Oxidation by the Multicopper Oxidase Complex Mnx: A Binuclear Activation Mechanism.

The bacterial protein complex Mnx contains a multicopper oxidase (MCO) MnxG that, unusually, catalyzes the two-electron oxidation of Mn(II) to MnO2 biomineral, via a Mn(III) intermediate. Although Mn(III)/Mn(II) and Mn(IV)/Mn(III) reduction potentials are expected to be high, we find a low reduction potential, 0.38 V (vs Normal Hydrogen Electrode, pH 7.8), for the MnxG type 1 Cu2+, the electron acceptor. Indeed the type 1 Cu2+ is not reduced by Mn(II) in the absence of molecular oxygen, indicating that substrate oxidation requires an activation step. We have investigated the enzyme mechanism via electronic absorption spectroscopy, using chemometric analysis to separate enzyme-catalyzed MnO2 formation from MnO2 nanoparticle aging. The nanoparticle aging time course is characteristic of nucleation and particle growth; rates for these processes followed expected dependencies on Mn(II) concentration and temperature, but exhibited different pH optima. The enzymatic time course is sigmoidal, signaling an activation step, prior to turnover. The Mn(II) concentration and pH dependence of a preceding lag phase indicates weak Mn(II) binding. The activation step is enabled by a pKa > 8.6 deprotonation, which is assigned to Mn(II)-bound H2O; it induces a conformation change (consistent with a high activation energy, 106 kJ/mol) that increases Mn(II) affinity. Mnx activation is proposed to decrease the Mn(III/II) reduction potential below that of type 1 Cu(II/I) by formation of a hydroxide-bridged binuclear complex, Mn(II)(µ-OH)Mn(II), at the substrate site. Turnover is found to depend cooperatively on two Mn(II) and is enabled by a pKa 7.6 double deprotonation. It is proposed that turnover produces a Mn(III)(µ-OH)2Mn(III) intermediate that proceeds to the enzyme product, likely Mn(IV)(µ-O)2Mn(IV) or an oligomer, which subsequently nucleates MnO2 nanoparticles. We conclude that Mnx exploits manganese polynuclear chemistry in order to facilitate an otherwise difficult oxidation reaction, as well as biomineralization. The mechanism of the Mn(III/IV) conversion step is elucidated in an accompanying paper .

Mn(II) Oxidation by the Multicopper Oxidase Complex Mnx: A Coordinated Two-Stage Mn(II)/(III) and Mn(III)/(IV) Mechanism.

The bacterial manganese oxidase MnxG of the Mnx protein complex is unique among multicopper oxidases (MCOs) in carrying out a two-electron metal oxidation, converting Mn(II) to MnO2 nanoparticles. The reaction occurs in two stages: Mn(II) → Mn(III) and Mn(III) → MnO2. In a companion study , we show that the electron transfer from Mn(II) to the low-potential type 1 Cu of MnxG requires an activation step, likely forming a hydroxide bridge at a dinuclear Mn(II) site. Here we study the second oxidation step, using pyrophosphate (PP) as a Mn(III) trap. PP chelates Mn(III) produced by the enzyme and subsequently allows it to become a substrate for the second stage of the reaction. EPR spectroscopy confirms the presence of Mn(III) bound to the enzyme. The Mn(III) oxidation step does not involve direct electron transfer to the enzyme from Mn(III), which is shown by kinetic measurements to be excluded from the Mn(II) binding site. Instead, Mn(III) is proposed to disproportionate at an adjacent polynuclear site, thereby allowing indirect oxidation to Mn(IV) and recycling of Mn(II). PP plays a multifaceted role, slowing the reaction by complexing both Mn(II) and Mn(III) in solution, and also inhibiting catalysis, likely through binding at or near the active site. An overall mechanism for Mnx-catalyzed MnO2 production from Mn(II) is presented.

Copper Binding Sites in the Manganese-Oxidizing Mnx Protein Complex Investigated by Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Spectroscopy.

Manganese-oxide minerals (MnOx) are widely distributed over the Earth's surface, and their geochemical cycling is globally important. A multicopper oxidase (MCO) MnxG protein from marine Bacillus bacteria plays an essential role in producing MnOx minerals by oxidizing Mn2+(aq) at rates that are 3 to 5 orders of magnitude faster than abiotic rates. The MnxG protein is isolated as part of a multiprotein complex denoted as "Mnx" that includes accessory protein subunits MnxE and MnxF, with an estimated stoichiometry of MnxE3F3G and corresponding molecular weight of ≈211 kDa. Herein, we report successful expression and isolation of the MCO MnxG protein without the E3F3 hexamer. This isolated MnxG shows activity for Mn2+(aq) oxidation to form manganese oxides. The complement of paramagnetic Cu(II) ions in the Mnx protein complex was examined by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy. Two distinct classes of type 2 Cu sites were detected. One class of Cu(II) site (denoted as T2Cu-A), located in the MnxG subunit, is identified by the magnetic parameters g∥ = 2.320 and A∥ = 510 MHz. The other class of Cu(II) sites (denoted as T2Cu-B) is characterized by g∥ = 2.210 and A∥ = 615 MHz and resides in the putative hexameric MnxE3F3 subunit. These different magnetic properties correlate with the differences in the reduction potentials of the respective Cu(II) centers. These studies provide new insights into the molecular mechanism of manganese biomineralization.

Biogenic Manganese-Oxide Mineralization is Enhanced by an Oxidative Priming Mechanism for the Multi-Copper Oxidase, MnxEFG.

In a natural geochemical cycle, manganese-oxide minerals (MnOx ) are principally formed through a microbial process, where a putative multicopper oxidase MnxG plays an essential role. Recent success in isolating the approximately 230 kDa, enzymatically active MnxEFG protein complex, has advanced our understanding of biogenic MnOx mineralization. Here, the kinetics of MnOx formation catalyzed by MnxEFG are examined using a quartz crystal microbalance (QCM), and the first electrochemical characterization of the MnxEFG complex is reported using Fourier transformed alternating current voltammetry. The voltammetric studies undertaken using near-neutral solutions (pH 7.8) establish the apparent reversible potentials for the Type 2 Cu sites in MnxEFG immobilized on a carboxy-terminated monolayer to be in the range 0.36-0.40 V versus a normal hydrogen electrode. Oxidative priming of the MnxEFG protein complex substantially enhances the enzymatic activity, as found by in situ electrochemical QCM analysis. The biogeochemical significance of this enzyme is clear, although the role of an oxidative priming of catalytic activity might be either an evolutionary advantage or an ancient relic of primordial existence.

Tunable Biogenic Manganese Oxides.

Influence of the conditions for aerobic oxidation of Mn2+(aq) catalysed by the MnxEFG protein complex on the morphology, structure and reactivity of the resulting biogenic manganese oxides (MnOx ) is explored. Physical characterisation of MnOx includes scanning and transmission electron microscopy, and X-ray photoelectron and K-edge Mn, Fe X-ray absorption spectroscopy. This characterisation reveals that the MnOx materials share the structural features of birnessite, yet differ in the degree of structural disorder. Importantly, these biogenic products exhibit strikingly different morphologies that can be easily controlled. Changing the substrate-to-protein ratio produces MnOx either as nm-thin sheets, or rods with diameters below 20 nm, or a combination of the two. Mineralisation in solutions that contain Fe2+(aq) makes solids with significant disorder in the structure, while the presence of Ca2+(aq) facilitates formation of more ordered materials. The (photo)oxidation and (photo)electrocatalytic capacity of the MnOx minerals is examined and correlated with their structural properties.

Pressure Dependence of Carbonate Exchange with [NpO2(CO3)3]4- in Aqueous Solutions.

The rates of ligand exchange into the geochemically important [NpO2(CO3)3]4- aqueous complex are measured as a function of pressure in order to complement existing data on the isostructural [UO2(CO3)3]4- complex. Experiments are conducted at pH conditions where the rate of exchange is independent of the proton concentration. Unexpectedly, the experiments show a distinct difference in the pressure dependencies of rates of exchange for the uranyl and neptunyl complexes.

The Propensity of Uranium-Peroxide Systems to Preserve Nanosized Assemblies.

Understanding the stability fields and decomposition products of various metal- and actinide-oxide nanoclusters is essential for their development into useful materials for industrial processes. Herein, we explore the spontaneous transformation of the sulfate-centered, phosphate functionalized uranyl peroxide nanocluster {U20P6} to {U24} under aqueous ambient conditions using time-resolved small-angle X-ray scattering, Raman, and 31P NMR spectroscopy. We show that the unusual µ-η1:η2 bridging mode of peroxide between uranyl ions observed in {U20P6} may lead to its rapid breakdown in solution as evidenced by liberation of phosphate groups that were originally present as an integral part of its cage structure. Remarkably, the uranyl peroxide moieties present after degradation of {U20P6} undergo cation-mediated reassembly into the {U24} cluster, demonstrating the propensity of the uranyl peroxide systems to preserve well-defined macro-anions.

Hierarchy of Pyrophosphate-Functionalized Uranyl Peroxide Nanocluster Synthesis.

Herein, we report a new salt of a pyrophosphate-functionalized uranyl peroxide nanocluster {U24Pp12} (1) exhibiting Oh molecular symmetry both in the solid and solution. Study of the system yielding 1 across a wide range of pH by single-crystal X-ray diffraction, small-angle X-ray scattering, and a combination of traditional 31P and diffusion-ordered spectroscopy (DOSY) NMR affords unprecedented insight into the amphoteric chemistry of this uranyl peroxide system. Key results include formation of a rare binary {U24}·{U24Pp12} (3) system observed under alkaline conditions, and evidence of acid-promoted decomposition of {U24Pp12} (1) followed by spatial rearrangement and condensation of {U4} building blocks into the {U32Pp16} (2) cluster. Furthermore, 31P DOSY NMR measurements performed on saturated solutions containing crystalline {U32Pp16} show only trace amounts (∼2% relative abundance) of the intact form of this cluster, suggesting a complex interconversion of {U24Pp12}, {U32Pp16}, and {U4Pp4-x} ions.

Stable Heterometallic Cluster Ions based on Werner's Hexol.

Large aqueous ions are interesting because they are useful in materials science (for example to generate thin films) but also because they serve as molecular models for the oxide-aqueous mineral interface where spectroscopy is difficult. Here we show that new clusters of the type M[(µ-OH)2 Co(NH3 )4 ]3 (NO3 )6 (M=Al, Ga) can be synthesized using Werner's century-old cluster as a substitutable framework. We substituted Group 13 metals into the hexol Co[(µ-OH)2 Co(NH3 )4 ]36+ ion to make diamagnetic heterometallic ions. The solid-state structure of the hexol-type derivatives were determined by single-crystal XRD and NMR spectroscopy and confirmed that the solid-state structure persists in solution after dissolution into either D2 O or [D6 ]DMSO. Other compositions besides these diamagnetic ions can undoubtedly be made using a similar approach, which considerably expands the number of stable aqueous heteronuclear ions.

Synthesis of an Aluminum Hydroxide Octamer through a Simple Dissolution Method.

Multimeric oxo-hydroxo Al clusters function as models for common mineral structures and reactions. Cluster research, however, is often slowed by a lack of methods to prepare clusters in pure form and in large amounts. Herein, we report a facile synthesis of the little known cluster Al8 (OH)14 (H2 O)18 (SO4 )5 (Al8 ) through a simple dissolution method. We confirm its structure by single-crystal X-ray diffraction and show by 27 Al NMR spectroscopy, electrospray-ionization mass spectrometry, and small- and wide-angle X-ray scattering that it also exists in solution. We speculate that Al8 may form in natural water systems through the dissolution of aluminum-containing minerals in acidic sulfate solutions, such as those that could result from acid rain or mine drainage. Additionally, the dissolution method produces a discrete Al cluster on a scale suitable for studies and applications in materials science.

Multicopper manganese oxidase accessory proteins bind Cu and heme.

Multicopper oxidases (MCOs) catalyze the oxidation of a diverse group of metal ions and organic substrates by successive single-electron transfers to O2 via four bound Cu ions. MnxG, which catalyzes MnO2 mineralization by oxidizing both Mn(II) and Mn(III), is unique among multicopper oxidases in that it carries out two energetically distinct electron transfers and is tightly bound to accessory proteins. There are two of these, MnxE and MnxF, both approximately 12kDa. Although their sequences are similar to those found in the genomes of several Mn-oxidizing Bacillus species, they are dissimilar to those of proteins with known function. Here, MnxE and MnxF are co-expressed independent of MnxG and are found to oligomerize into a higher order stoichiometry, likely a hexamer. They bind copper and heme, which have been characterized by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS), and UV-visible (UV-vis) spectrophotometry. Cu is found in two distinct type 2 (T2) copper centers, one of which appears to be novel; heme is bound as a low-spin species, implying coordination by two axial ligands. MnxE and MnxF do not oxidize Mn in the absence of MnxG and are the first accessory proteins to be required by an MCO. This may indicate that Cu and heme play roles in electron transfer and/or Cu trafficking.

Titanium-Substituted Polyoxotantalate Clusters Exhibiting Wide pH Stabilities: [Ti2 Ta8 O28 ](8-) and [Ti12 Ta6 O44 ](10.).

Two new substituted polyoxotantalate clusters, [Ti2 Ta8 O28 ](8-) and [Ti12 Ta6 O44 ](10-) , considerably expand the pH range where tantalates persist in aqueous solution. The structures of [Ti2 Ta8 O28 ](8-) and [Ti12 Ta6 O44 ](10-) are reported as tetramethylammonium salts after synthesis at hydrothermal conditions in aqueous solution. These Ti-substituted polyoxotantalate clusters have analogues among recently discovered niobates, but are slightly larger and more persistent in solution. Most importantly, they exhibit a much wider range of pH stability than the familiar hexatantalate cluster, which is the only other tantalate known to be stable at highly basic pH conditions. These molecules are kinetically stable to near-neutral pH, making them excellent synthons for further development into materials and catalysts, and an significant advance in adapting tantalates for use in aqueous solutions.

Isomerization of Keggin Al13 Ions Followed by Diffusion Rates.

The solution chemistry of aluminum has long interested scientists due to its relevance to materials chemistry and geochemistry. The dynamic behavior of large aluminum-oxo-hydroxo clusters, specifically [Al13 O4 (OH)24 (H2 O)12 ]7+ (Al13 ), is the focus of this paper. 27 Al NMR, 1 H NMR, and 1 H DOSY techniques were used to follow the isomerization of the ϵ-Al13 in the presence of glycine and Ca2+ at 90 °C. Although the conversion of ϵ-Al13 to new clusters and/or Baker-Figgis-Keggin isomers has been studied previously, new 1 H NMR and 1 H DOSY analyses provided information about the role of glycine, the ligated intermediates, and the mechanism of isomerization. New 1 H NMR data suggest that glycine plays a critical role in the isomerization. Surprisingly, glycine does not bind to Al30 clusters, which were previously proposed as an intermediate in the isomerization. Additionally, a highly symmetric tetrahedral signal (δ=72 ppm) appeared during the isomerization process, which evidence suggests corresponds to the long-sought α-Al13 isomer in solution.

Structure and Reactivity of X-ray Amorphous Uranyl Peroxide, U2O7.

Recent accidents resulting in worker injury and radioactive contamination occurred due to pressurization of uranium yellowcake drums produced in the western U.S.A. The drums contained an X-ray amorphous reactive form of uranium oxide that may have contributed to the pressurization. Heating hydrated uranyl peroxides produced during in situ mining can produce an amorphous compound, as shown by X-ray powder diffraction of material from impacted drums. Subsequently, studtite, [(UO2)(O2)(H2O)2](H2O)2, was heated in the laboratory. Its thermal decomposition produced a hygroscopic anhydrous uranyl peroxide that reacts with water to release O2 gas and form metaschoepite, a uranyl-oxide hydrate. Quantum chemical calculations indicate that the most stable U2O7 conformer consists of two bent (UO2)(2+) uranyl ions bridged by a peroxide group bidentate and parallel to each uranyl ion, and a µ2-O atom, resulting in charge neutrality. A pair distribution function from neutron total scattering supports this structural model, as do (1)H- and (17)O-nuclear magnetic resonance spectra. The reactivity of U2O7 in water and with water in air is higher than that of other uranium oxides, and this can be both hazardous and potentially advantageous in the nuclear fuel cycle.

Energetic basis of catalytic activity of layered nanophase calcium manganese oxides for water oxidation.

Previous measurements show that calcium manganese oxide nanoparticles are better water oxidation catalysts than binary manganese oxides (Mn3O4, Mn2O3, and MnO2). The probable reasons for such enhancement involve a combination of factors: The calcium manganese oxide materials have a layered structure with considerable thermodynamic stability and a high surface area, their low surface energy suggests relatively loose binding of H2O on the internal and external surfaces, and they possess mixed-valent manganese with internal oxidation enthalpy independent of the Mn(3+)/Mn(4+) ratio and much smaller in magnitude than the Mn2O3-MnO2 couple. These factors enhance catalytic ability by providing easy access for solutes and water to active sites and facile electron transfer between manganese in different oxidation states.

Mn(II) Binding and Subsequent Oxidation by the Multicopper Oxidase MnxG Investigated by Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Spectroscopy.

The dynamics of manganese solid formation (as MnOx) by the multicopper oxidase (MCO)-containing Mnx protein complex were examined by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy. Continuous-wave (CW) EPR spectra of samples of Mnx, prepared in atmosphere and then reacted with Mn(II) for times ranging from 7 to 600 s, indicate rapid oxidation of the substrate manganese (with two-phase pseudo-first-order kinetics modeled using rate coefficients of: k(1obs) = 0.205 ± 0.001 s(-1) and k(2obs) = 0.019 ± 0.001 s(-1)). This process occurs on approximately the same time scale as in vitro solid MnOx formation when there is a large excess of Mn(II). We also found CW and pulse EPR spectroscopic evidence for at least three classes of Mn(II)-containing species in the reaction mixtures: (i) aqueous Mn(II), (ii) a specifically bound mononuclear Mn(II) ion coordinated to the Mnx complex by one nitrogenous ligand, and (iii) a weakly exchange-coupled dimeric Mn(II) species. These findings provide new insights into the molecular mechanism of manganese mineralization.

Acid-stable peroxoniobophosphate clusters to make patterned films.

Two new peroxoniobophosphate clusters were isolated as tetramethylammonium (TMA) salts having the stoichiometries: TMA5[HNb4P2O14(O2)4]⋅9 H2O and TMA3[H7Nb6P4O24(O2)6]⋅7 H2O. The former is stable over the pH range: 3

Energetic Insight into the Formation of Solids from Aluminum Polyoxocations.

The ε-Keggin [AlO4Al12(OH)24(H2O)12](7+) ion (AlAl12(7+)) is a metastable precursor in the formation of aluminum oxyhydroxide solids. It also serves as a useful model for the chemistry of aluminous mineral surfaces. Herein we calculate the enthalpies of formation for this aqueous ion and its heterometal-substituted forms, GaAl12(7+) and GeAl12(8+), using solution calorimetry. Rather than measuring the enthalpies of the MAl12(7/8+) ions directly from solution hydrolysis, we measured the metathesis reaction of the crystallized forms with barium chloride creating an aqueous aluminum solution monospecific in MAl12(7/8+). Then, the contributions to the heat of formation from the crystallized forms were subtracted using referenced states. When comparing the aqueous AlAl12(7+) ion to solid aluminum (oxy)-hydroxide phases, we found that this ion lies closer in energy to solid phases than to aqueous aluminum monomers, thus explaining its role as a precursor to amorphous aluminum hydroxide phases.