Measuring children's behavioral regulation in the preschool classroom: An objective, sensor-based approach.

Children's abilities to regulate their behaviors are critical for learning and development, yet researchers lack an objective, precise method for assessing children's behavioral regulation in their everyday environments such as their classrooms. This study tested a sensor-based approach to assess preschool children's behavioral regulation objectively, precisely, and naturalistically. Children wore accelerometer devices as they engaged in center-based play in their preschool classrooms for roughly 45 min (N = 50 children, 48% female, mean age = 4.5 years). Set to record data each second, these devices collected information about children's movement (N = 140,564 observations). From these data, the authors extracted concrete behaviors hypothesized to index behavioral regulation and compared them with teacher and observer ratings of the same. Initiating movement more frequently, staying seated in activities for shorter amounts of time, and spending a greater amount of time in motion were related to lower ratings of attention and inhibitory control by teachers and by observers of classroom group time, median r = .45, p < .01. These same objectively measured behaviors showed only weak associations with children's performance on assessments of cognitive regulation, median r = .11, p = .47. The findings indicate that ambulatory accelerometers can capture movement-based indicators of children's behavioral regulation in the classroom setting and that performance on measures of cognitive regulation does not strongly predict children's behavior in the classroom. As an unobtrusive and objective measure, actigraphy may become an important tool for studying children's behavioral regulation in everyday contexts.

Association between aerobic fitness and cerebrovascular function with neurocognitive functions in healthy, young adults.

Studies of the effects of physical activity on cognition suggest that aerobic fitness can improve cognitive abilities. However, the physiological mechanisms for the cognitive benefit of aerobic fitness are less well understood. We examined the association between aerobic fitness and cerebrovascular function with neurocognitive functions in healthy, young adults. Participants aged 18-29 years underwent measurements of cerebral vasomotor reactivity (CVMR) in response to rebreathing-induced hypercapnia, maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) during cycle ergometry to voluntary exhaustion, and simple- and complex-neurocognitive assessments at rest. Ten subjects were identified as having low-aerobic fitness (LF < 15th fitness percentile), and twelve subjects were identified as having high-aerobic fitness (HF > 80th fitness percentile). There were no LF versus HF group differences in cerebrovascular hemodynamics during the baseline condition. Changes in middle cerebral artery blood velocity and CVMR during hypercapnia were elevated more in the HF than the LF group. Compared to the LF, the HF performed better on a complex-cognitive task assessing fluid reasoning, but not on simple attentional abilities. Statistical modeling showed that measures of VO2max, CVMR, and fluid reasoning were positively inter-correlated. The relationship between VO2max and fluid reasoning, however, did not appear to be reliably mediated by CVMR. In conclusion, a high capacity for maximal oxygen uptake among healthy, young adults was associated with greater CVMR and better fluid reasoning, implying that high-aerobic fitness may promote cerebrovascular and cognitive functioning abilities.

Cognitive enhancement by transcranial laser stimulation and acute aerobic exercise.

This is the first randomized, controlled study comparing the cognitive effects of transcranial laser stimulation and acute aerobic exercise on the same cognitive tasks. We examined whether transcranial infrared laser stimulation of the prefrontal cortex, acute high-intensity aerobic exercise, or the combination may enhance performance in sustained attention and working memory tasks. Sixty healthy young adults were randomly assigned to one of the following four treatments: (1) low-level laser therapy (LLLT) with infrared laser to two forehead sites while seated (total 8 min, 1064 nm continuous wave, 250 mW/cm(2), 60 J/cm(2) per site of 13.6 cm(2)); (2) acute exercise (EX) of high-intensity (total 20 min, with 10-min treadmill running at 85-90 % VO2max); (3) combined treatment (LLLT + EX); or (4) sham control (CON). Participants were tested for prefrontal measures of sustained attention with the psychomotor vigilance task (PVT) and working memory with the delayed match-to-sample task (DMS) before and after the treatments. As compared to CON, both LLLT and EX reduced reaction time in the PVT [F(1.56) = 4.134, p = 0.01, η (2) = 0.181] and increased the number of correct responses in the DMS [F(1.56) = 4.690, p = 0.005, η (2) = 0.201], demonstrating a significant enhancing effect of LLLT and EX on cognitive performance. LLLT + EX effects were similar but showed no significantly greater improvement on PVT and DMS than LLLT or EX alone. The transcranial infrared laser stimulation and acute aerobic exercise treatments were similarly effective for cognitive enhancement, suggesting that they augment prefrontal cognitive functions similarly.

The negative association of childhood obesity to cognitive control of action monitoring.

The global epidemic of childhood obesity has become a major public health concern. Yet, evidence regarding the association between childhood obesity and cognitive health has remained scarce. This study examined the relationship between obesity and cognitive control using neuroelectric and behavioral measures of action monitoring in preadolescent children. Healthy weight and obese children performed compatible and incompatible stimulus-response conditions of a modified flanker task, while task performance and the error-related negativity (ERN) were assessed. Analyses revealed that obese children exhibited a longer reaction time (RT) relative to healthy weight children for the incompatible condition, whereas no such difference was observed for the compatible condition. Further, obese children had smaller ERN amplitude relative to healthy weight children with lower post-error response accuracy. In addition, healthy weight children maintained post-error response accuracy between the compatible and incompatible conditions with decreased ERN amplitude in the incompatible condition, whereas obese children exhibited lower post-error response accuracy for the incompatible relative to the compatible condition with no change in ERN amplitude between the compatibility conditions. These results suggest that childhood obesity is associated with a decreased ability to modulate the cognitive control network, involving the prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex, which supports action monitoring.

Physical literacy and Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programs.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this paper is to make a case for Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP) to be the organizational framework for providing physical activity opportunities for children that is most likely to result in physical literacy. METHOD: Beginning in 2010, the authors used multiple search engines to ascertain the existent literature surrounding physical literacy and physical activity interventions to identify common approaches to providing physically activity in and around school. Grounded in the Health Belief Model and the idea that physical literacy is a desired outcome of physical education, publications focused on each of the components of the CSPAP were synthesized to describe evidence-based practice. RESULTS: There is adequate evidence to suggest that quality physical education, before/after school, during school, staff involvement, and family and community engagement can serve as logical points of intervention to provide increased opportunities for physical activity participation leading to physical literacy among children. CONCLUSIONS: Since only 6% of all children participate in daily physical education classes and only six states offer K-12 physical education, the implementation of CSPAP may be the most logical avenue for providing greater opportunities for physical activity engagement that fosters physical literacy as a health-oriented educational goal.

Impact of trained champions of comprehensive school physical activity programs on school physical activity offerings, youth physical activity and sedentary behaviors.

OBJECTIVE: A quasi-experimental cluster-controlled design was used to test the impact of comprehensive school physical activity program (CSPAP) professional development on changes in school physical activity (PA) offerings, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and sedentary behaviors of 9-14 year-old children during school. METHODS: Two groups of Louisiana elementary and middle school physical education teachers (N=129) attended a CSPAP summer workshop (95 in 2012=intervention, 34 in 2013=control) and were assessed on school PA offerings (teacher-reported; pre, mid, and post). During the 2012-2013 school year, intervention teachers received CSPAP support while implementing new school PA programs. MVPA and sedentary behaviors were assessed (accelerometry; baseline and post) on a sample of 231 intervention, 120 control students from 16 different schools. RESULTS: Multivariate analysis of covariance indicated that intervention teachers reported significantly more PA offerings during school (3.35 vs. 2.37) and that involve staff (1.43 vs. 0.90). Three-level, mixed model regressions (stratified by sex) indicated that students overall spent less time in MVPA and more time being sedentary during school, but the effects were significantly blunted among intervention students, especially boys. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides preliminary evidence for CSPAP professional development programs to influence school-level PA offerings and offset student-level declines in MVPA and increases in sedentary behavior.

The HOT (Healthy Outcome for Teens) project. Using a web-based medium to influence attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control and intention for obesity and type 2 diabetes prevention.

We hypothesized that Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) constructs (behavioral belief, attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, knowledge and behavioral intention) regarding preventive behaviors for obesity and type 2 diabetes will change favorably after completing the web-based intervention, HOT (Healthy Outcome for Teens) project, grounded in the TPB; and that passive online learning (POL) group will improve more than the active online learning (AOL) group. The secondary hypothesis was to determine to what extent constructs of the TPB predict intentions. 216 adolescents were recruited, 127 randomly allocated to the treatment group (AOL) and 89 to the control group (POL). The subjects completed a TPB questionnaire pre and post intervention. Both POL and AOL groups showed significant improvements from pretest to posttest survey. However, the results indicated no significant difference between POL and AOL for all constructs except behavioral belief. Correlational analysis indicated that all TPB constructs were significantly correlated with intentions for pretest and posttest for both groups. Attitude and behavioral control showed strongest correlations. Regression analysis indicated that TPB constructs were predictive of intentions and the predictive power improved post intervention. Behavioral control consistently predicted intentions for all categories and was the strongest predictor for pretest scores. For posttest scores, knowledge and attitude were the strongest predictors for POL and AOL groups respectively. Thus, HOT project improved knowledge and the TPB constructs scores for targeted behaviors, healthy eating and physical activity, for prevention of obesity and type 2 diabetes.

VII. The history of physical activity and academic performance research: informing the future.

The study of physical activity, physical fitness, and academic performance research are reviewed from a historical perspective, by providing an overview of existing publications focused on children and adolescents. Using rigorous inclusion criteria, the studies were quantified and qualified using both meta-analytic and descriptive evaluations analyses, first by time-period and then as an overall summary, particularly focusing on secular trends and future directions. This review is timely because the body of literature is growing exponentially, resulting in the emergence of new terminology, methodologies, and identification of mediating and moderating factors. Implications and recommendations for future research are summarized.

V. The differential association of adiposity and fitness with cognitive control in preadolescent children.

With the increasing prevalence of sedentary behaviors during childhood, a greater understanding of the extent to which excess adiposity and aerobic fitness relate to cognitive health is of increasing importance. To date, however, the vast majority of research in this area has focused on adiposity or fitness, rather than the possible inter-relationship, as it relates to cognition. Accordingly, this study examined the differential associations between body composition, aerobic fitness, and cognitive control in a sample of 204 (96 female) preadolescent children. Participants completed a modified flanker task (i.e., inhibition) and a switch task (i.e., cognitive flexibility) to assess two aspects of cognitive control. Findings from this study indicate that fitness and adiposity appear to be separable factors as they relate to cognitive control, given that the interaction of fitness and adiposity was observed to be nonsignificant for both the flanker and switch tasks. Fitness exhibited an independent association with both inhibition and cognitive flexibility whereas adiposity exhibited an independent association only with cognitive flexibility. These results suggest that while childhood obesity and fitness appear to both be related to cognitive control, they may be differentially associated with its component processes.

The Impact of a Global Pandemic on Young Adult Sedentary Behavior and Physical Activity.

Introduction: The novel COVID-19 disease detected in 2019 widely affected individuals' social movements, likely disrupting the ability to participate in leisure-related physical activity. Because of this, participation in sedentary behavior is thought to have increased. The purpose of this study was to determine how the COVID-19 pandemic affected U.S. young adult physical activity and sedentary behavior. Methods: A total of 333 U.S. young adults (aged between 18 and 30 years) completed an online, comprehensive questionnaire during the early parts of COVID-19. Wilcoxon signed-rank tests were used to determine the change in time spent in physical activity and sedentary behavior during COVID-19 compared with that before COVID-19. Results: There was a significant decrease in physical activity minutes (p<0.0001) and a significant increase in sedentary behavior (p<0.005) during COVID-19 compared with that before COVID-19. Significant differences were found by stratifying the data by sex and relationship status. Although both males and females reduced their physical activity, only males significantly increased their time in sedentary behavior during COVID-19 compared with that before COVID-19 (p<0.05). Furthermore, married young adults significantly reduced their physical activity during COVID-19 (p<0.001), whereas single individuals did not. Single young adults saw significant increases in sedentary behavior during COVID-19 (p<0.005), whereas married individuals did not exhibit any change in sedentary behavior. Conclusions: Stay-at-home orders enforced in the U.S. during the summer of 2020 led to increases in sedentary behavior and decreases in physical activity, particularly among males and single young adults. Future studies should determine whether these behavior changes persist.

Feasibility of utilizing gamified learning as a motivational strategy for promoting physical activity participation and healthy eating among college students.

Emerging adulthood is a developmental stage influenced by the regularity of healthy behaviors. Gamification is the motivational strategy using virtual rewards and social comparison. This study aimed to explore the feasibility and proof of concept of utilizing digital badges, leaderboards, and quests as gamified learning in a health course. All data were collected using a pre/posttest format from first-year college students (n = 159; female = 42%). Employing a quasi-experimental design with the students in gamified/non-gamified conditions, Fitbit monitored physical activity (PA), and healthy eating (survey and diet recall) pre/post treatment. A covariance analysis demonstrated that gamification positively influenced students' participation in light PA (p = .035, η2 = 0.03) and healthy eating (p = .008, η2 = 0.049) over the content matched control group. Integrating gamified elements into health education is feasible and advantageous to increase participation in activities such as walking and healthy eating.

ACTIVE YOU: Teacher Attributes and Attitudes Predicting Physical Activity Promotion.

BACKGROUND: Based on the Health Belief Model, this study examined preservice teacher attributes and attitudes toward providing physical activity opportunities for children in school. METHODS: A quasi-experimental design was used to collect proof of concept and feasibility data for the ACTIVE YOU intervention as part of teacher education. CONCLUSIONS: Examination of a diverse sample of preservice teachers during their fieldwork revealed that those who engage in healthy behaviors and had positive attitudes toward physical activity in schools are more likely to take action and promote physical activity for their students.

How Elementary In-School Play Opportunities Relate to Academic Achievement and Social-Emotional Well-Being: Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: Play is essential for child growth and development, and may have academic and social-emotional implications. To understand the relationship between in-school play opportunities and academic achievement (AA) and social-emotional well-being among elementary school students, a systematic review of the current in-school play literature was conducted. METHODS: Keywords were input across 7 search engines. After screening, 20 peer-reviewed publications related to play, AA, and social-emotional well-being met the inclusion criteria for this review. FINDINGS: Across the included publications, recess was the only in-school play opportunity assessed. Overall, student behavior and social-emotional outcomes benefited from more recess while mixed results were found between recess participation and academic outcomes. However, more recess was not detrimental to AA. CONCLUSION: The findings from this review support the need for recess as part of a whole child approach to education that may mitigate the negative outcomes of sitting through long periods of instruction. More research is needed on the AA and social-emotional effects of other types of in-school play opportunities (ie, centers, play stations, and other breaks). Findings from this review indicate that recess is a necessary part of the elementary school day.

Preschoolers' executive functions following indoor and outdoor free play.

BACKGROUND: Children's executive functions develop rapidly during the preschool years and are critical for attending to lessons and meeting classroom expectations. Engaging in periods of outdoor play that have lower regulatory requirements and that provide opportunities for physical activity may help children maintain control over their behavior when they are back in settings with higher regulatory requirements. However, little work has formally examined this proposition in early childhood. METHODS: This study used a quasi-experimental design to examine preschoolers' executive functions following indoor compared to outdoor play. A total of 72 children (mean age = 4.5 years, 46% female, 73% non-Hispanic White) participated in task-based assessments of attention shifting and inhibitory control and in classroom observations of attention and inhibitory control. A subsample of the children (n = 51) was assessed for physical activity using accelerometry to examine the extent to which young children's physical activity during outdoor play predicted their subsequent executive functions better than their physical activity during indoor play. RESULTS: Children showed greater attention during classroom circle time following outdoor play compared to after indoor play (d = .34). Children's non-sedentary activity during indoor play was not related to their subsequent task-based executive functions but showed negative associations with their subsequent classroom-based executive functions. Children's percentage of time spent in non-sedentary physical activity during outdoor play showed a quadratic association with subsequent task-based inhibitory control but linear associations with subsequent classroom-based attention and inhibitory control during circle time. CONCLUSION: Periods of outdoor play that involve recommended amounts of physical activity may help young children engage executive functions when they return to the classroom.

Total Play Time Needed for Preschoolers to Reach Recommended Amount of Non-Sedentary Activity.

Health guidelines suggest that caregivers provide preschoolers with opportunities to be physically active for 3 h per day (roughly 15 min per waking hour), but because children are not continuously active, it is unclear what amount of time is needed to reach this goal. This naturalistic study enrolled 67 children (M = 4.5 years, 46% female) who wore accelerometers to measure their activity during indoor and outdoor free -play (N = 315,061 s). An hour of indoor play was insufficient for most children to reach 15 min of physical activity. When outside, most children reached 15 min of physical activity after slightly more than 30 min. Children engaged in outdoor activity sporadically (1.7 starts/stops per minute). Most physical activity occurred in bouts shorter than 20 s. Indoor free-play does not, on its own, provide sufficient opportunity for preschoolers to engage in physical activity consistent with health guidelines. As a result, outdoor play for at least 30 min at a time has a key role in meeting these guidelines.

FIT Kids: Time in target heart zone and cognitive performance.

OBJECTIVE: This present study examined time spent in the target heart zone (THZ) and its relationship to tasks requiring variable amounts of executive control function in prepubescent children participating in a 9-month randomized controlled physical activity program. METHODS: A sample of 59 participants performed the Stroop Color-Word Test and the Comprehensive Trail Making Test cognitive assessments. Heart rate data were collected during participation in the physical activity program using E600 heart rate monitors (Polar, Finland). RESULTS: There was a significant difference, F(1, 58)=7.44, p <.009, between males and females for relative VO2max, but not absolute (p=.69) or percent VO2max (p=.73). Regression analysis identified KBIT, age, and mean time above the THZ as significant predictors of performance in the Stroop Color-Word condition, F(1, 56)=5.21, p=.02. KBIT and mean time above the THZ were significant predictors for Trails B, F(1, 56)=7.60. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that heart rate, as a measure of physical activity intensity, should be closely monitored during research that is intended to make inferences about its effects on cognitive performance as participation in vigorous activities may have specific benefits over lower intensities among prepubescent children.

The effects of an afterschool physical activity program on working memory in preadolescent children.

The present study examined the effects of a 9-month randomized control physical activity intervention aimed at improving cardiorespiratory fitness on changes in working memory performance in preadolescent children relative to a waitlist control group. Participants performed a modified Sternberg task, which manipulated working memory demands based on encoding set sizes, while task performance and the contingent negative variation (CNV) event-related brain potential were measured. Analyses revealed that the physical activity intervention led to increases in cardiorespiratory fitness and improved Sternberg task performance. Further, the beneficial effects of the physical activity intervention were greater for a task condition requiring greater working memory demands. In addition, the intervention group exhibited larger initial CNV at the frontal electrode site, relative to the waitlist group at post-test; an effect not observed during the pre-test. These results indicate that increases in cardiorespiratory fitness are associated with improvements in the cognitive control of working memory in preadolescent children.

Effects of Gamification on Behavioral Change in Education: A Meta-Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Gamified reward systems, such as providing digital badges earned for specific accomplishments, are related to student engagement in educational settings. The purpose of this study was to conduct a meta-analytic review to quantify the effects of gamified interventions on student behavioral change. METHODS: A meta-analysis was performed using the following databases: The Academic Search Complete, Communication & Mass Media Complete, Education Source, ERIC, Library Information Science & Technology Abstracts, and PsycINFO. Inclusion in the review required: (a) peer-reviewed conducted between 2010 and 2019, (b) experimental controlled design, (c) gamification elements, and (d) educational setting. RESULTS: Using a random-effects model, a statistically significant (Cohen's d (ES) = 0.48, 95% CI = 0.33, 0.62) gamification effect was evidenced by moderate and positive grand effects sizes (ES). Gamification effects were higher with adults in higher education (ES = 0.95) than K-12 students (ES = 0.92). Brief interventions delivered in days or less than 1 week were significantly more effective (ES = 1.57) than interventions lasting up to 20 weeks (ES = 0.30). Interventions incorporating gamification elements across years (ES = -0.20) was adversely associated with behavioral change. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that short-term over longer-term gamified interventions might be a promising way to initiate changes in learner's behaviors and improve learning outcome.

Sedentary Behaviors, Sleep, and Health-related Quality of Life in Middle-aged Adults.

Objectives: In this study, we examined the associations of various sedentary behaviors (SB) to health-related quality of life (HRQOL) and the possible mediating role of sleep quality in these relationships. Methods: Participants were 363 middle-aged adults (Mage = 44.25, SD = 4.72, 64% male) from Amazon MTurk. Self-reported measures of socio-demographic status, time spent doing 10 different types of SB, sleep quality, and HRQOL were collected. Exploratory factor analysis was used to classify SB. Mediation analysis with PROCESS for SPPS examined the mediational paths. Results: Exploratory factor analysis categorized 10 sedentary activities into Common Engaging SB, High Engaging/Leisure SB, and Less Engaging/Passive SB. Findings suggested that Common Engaging SB was negatively associated with HRQOL, whereas High Engaging/Leisure SB was positively related to HRQOL. Sleep quality appeared to mediate the associations of Common Engaging SB and High Engaging/Leisure SB to HRQOL. Conclusions: Reducing sitting time, particularly Common Engaging SB, could be a useful strategy to improve HRQOL. Health promotion programs should support mentally engaging leisure activities because such activities might increase middle-aged adults' HRQOL. Additionally, health promotion programs are needed to raise public awareness regarding the importance of sleep quality.

Essential Components of Physical Education: Policy and Environment.

Purpose: Physical education policies provide guidance and accountability to develop quality programs that increase physical literacy. The purpose of this study was to conduct a systematic review of physical education policy research to explore its effects on the school environment and programming as an essential component of physical education. Methods: Using the PRISMA guidelines of identify, screen, determine eligibility, and include, studies were extracted from four different databases, using search terms related to the essential physical education component of policy and environment. Of the 225 publications identified, 42 studies met the inclusion criteria for this investigation. Each paper was coded, and emergent themes were identified. Results: The policy research was predominantly descriptive and focused on: (a) minutes in physical education (83%), (b) moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA; 31%), (c) certified/qualified teachers (24%), (d) exemptions (17%), and (e) student-teacher ratio (12%). Emergent themes of adherence, policy strength, and implementation accountability were identified as influential physical education policy aspects. Conclusions: Policy research over the last 20 years was focused on the regulatory mandate of time. Policy research did not directly address disciplinary process variables of learning activities or outcomes of physical education. The effects of policy exemptions and class size were underrepresented. Themes may explain the lack of reporting student performance as the primary outcome. Further research is needed to examine the downstream effects of physical education policy and determine whether well-written policies increase the number of physically literate individuals.