Characterisation of the indigenous knowledge used for gastrointestinal nematode control in smallholder farming areas of KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa.

BACKGROUND: The use of indigenous knowledge (IK) to control gastrointestinal nematodes has been known since ancient times. The objective of the study was to characterise the use of indigenous knowledge to control gastrointestinal nematodes in goats. METHODS: A structured questionnaire was used to collect data from farmers. Chi-square was used to compute associations; the generalized linear model was used for mean rank scores. RESULTS: Roundworms were the most common gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) affecting goats reared in the bushland vegetation type than grasslands. Twelve plant species were commonly used to control GIN in goats, with Cissus quadrangularis Linn. singled out as the most widely used plant with a use-value of 0.97, followed by Albizia anthelminthica Brongn. (0.66), Cissus rotundifolia (Forssk.) Vahl (0.63), Vachellia xanthophloea (Benth.) P.J.H. Hurter (0.59), Aloe marlothii A. Berger (0.58), Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst (0.54), Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Mey (0.53), Aloe maculata All. (0.50), Trichilia emetica Vahl (0.47), Aloe ferox Mill. (0.43), Vernonia neocorymbosa Hilliard (0.25) and Schkuhria pinnata (Lam) Kuntze ex Thell (0.16). C. rotundifolia, V. xanthophloea, S. birrea and T. emetica were dominant plant species used to control GIN in goats reared in the grassland vegetation. A. maculata, A. ferox and V. neocorymbosa were dominant in the bushland vegetation type. CONCLUSION: The study revealed that ethnoveterinary plants are widely used in grassland and bushland vegetation types to control GIN in goats. Scientific validation of their efficacy and safety should be carried out to provide a cheaper alternative, thus improving the community livelihoods and development.

Do water shortages increase gastrointestinal nematode loads in Nguni does?

OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study was to assess the effects of water deprivation on the burden of gastrointestinal nematodes in Nguni does. METHODS: A survey was piloted on goat keepers in households where water was scarce (n = 143) and where it was available throughout the year (n = 142). In a controlled experiment, feed intake (ADFI), body condition score (BCS), FAMACHA score, packed cell volume (PCV) and faecal egg counts (FEC) were determined in does deprived of water for 24 and 48 h. RESULTS: There was a significant association between the frequency with which goats drink water and the distance from the water source. From the experiment, an increase in the water deprivation period decreased ADFI, BCS and PCV, and increased FAMACHA scores and faecal egg counts in Nguni goats. The BCS of goats deprived of water for 48 h was 12% lower than the control (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Reduction in water supply increased gastrointestinal burdens in does, which may compromise their productivity and production efficiency. Depriving goats of water for 24 h had no significant effect on gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) loads. The deprivation period of 48 h increased the GIN burden in does.

Differences in burden of gastrointestinal nematode infestations in indigenous does foraging in grassland and forestland vegetation types.

Gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) infestations remain a major challenge to the health, productivity and reproductive performance of small ruminants. A longitudinal study was conducted to assess the effect of vegetation type, season and parity on the burden of GIN in indigenous does that were foraging in grassland and forestland vegetation types. Body condition scores (BCS), packed cell volume (PCV), FAMACHA score and faecal egg counts (FEC) were determined in Xhosa lob-eared does (n = 165) during the cool-dry, hot-wet and post-rainy seasons in both vegetation types. Faecal samples were collected from the rectum and analysed using the modified McMaster technique. There was a significant association between vegetation type and season on the recorded BCS, body weight (BW), FEC, PCV and FAMACHA scores. Xhosa lob-eared does in the forestland had higher (P < 0.05) BCS as compared to those in grassland. Higher FEC (P < 0.05) were observed in Xhosa lob-eared does in the grassland vegetation compared to those in forestland. Body condition scores, FEC and FAMACHA scores were significantly higher in the hot-wet season than cool-dry and post-rainy seasons, while PCV was significantly higher during the cool-dry compared to hot-wet season in forestland. Strongyles and Strongyloides eggs were higher in does grazing in the grassland than those in the forestland during the hot-wet season. Strategies for the effective control of GIN in goats should consider that infestation levels differ with vegetation type, season and parity. Controlling of GIN in goats, therefore, requires an integrated control strategy that should consider the vegetation type that the goats are reared on.

Response to reduced dietary protein level on growth performance in growing Windsnyer pigs.

The objective of the study was to determine the growth performance response to reduced dietary protein level and to identify the optimum level of protein for the performance in growing Windsnyer pigs. Maize-soybean-based diets were formulated to contain a protein level of 193 g/kg, 173.7 g/kg, 154.4 g/kg, 135.1 g/kg, 115.8 g/kg and 96.5 g/kg. The 193 g/kg (control diet) is the standard recommended by the National Research Council. The amino acid levels and net energy value were similar in all treatments. The study was conducted with five growing Windsnyer pigs per each protein inclusion level. The trial was carried out with individually caged pigs aged 4 months, weighing about 23 (SD = 1.39) kg. The experiment lasted a period of 8 weeks excluding 2 weeks of the adaptation period. The feed and water were offered ad libitum. The average daily feed intake (ADFI), average daily gain (ADG), feed conversion ratio (FCR), final body weight (FBW) and metabolic body weight (BW0.75) were measured. Polynomial regression and piecewise regressions were used to analyse data. Decremental levels of protein did not affect (p > 0.05) ADFI and ADG. Reduced levels of protein influenced FBW, BW0.75 and FCR (p < 0.05). A decreasing quadratic response was observed in FCR, as CP decreased from 193 g/kg to 135.1, FCR improved from 3.18 to 2.13 then suddenly decreased with the CP level. There was a quadratic increase in BW0.75 and FBW as inclusion levels of protein were reduced (p < 0.05). They increased from 193 g/kg (FBW 39.5 and BW0.75 12.8) protein level until 135.1 g/kg (FBW 45.1 and BW0.75 14.6) then begun to decrease as dietary protein level was decreased further. Using stepwise piece (broken stick) methods, the optimum protein level for FCR was estimated to be at 135.1 g/kg (p < 0.05). The maximum level of dietary protein for BW and BW0.75 was obtained at 135.1 g/kg. Reduction of the CP level in the Windsnyer pig diet beyond 138.3, 132.1 and 132.3 g/kg hinders the FCR, FBW and BW0.75, respectively. Protein levels can be reduced from the standard recommendation level of 193 g/kg to 135.1 g/kg without compromising the growth performance of growing Windsnyer pigs.

Growth performance and fertility of Windsnyer boars supplemented with α-tocopherol.

The purpose of the present work was to determine the response in growth performance and spermatozoa characteristics of Windsnyer boars supplemented with progressive levels of α-tocopherol. Twenty Windsnyer boars aged 12 weeks with an average body weight of 19.5 ± 2.67 kg were used. Each boar was housed individually in a 1.54 × 0.8 m pen in environmentally controlled house with the temperature ranging from 22 to 25 °C. Five boars were randomly assigned to each diet containing 0, 40, 70 and 90 IU of α-tocopherol. The growth performance experiment lasted for 12 weeks. Subsequently, boars were humanely slaughtered for analyses of testicular development and spermatozoa characteristics. Polynomial regression was used to analyse data. There was a linear response (P < 0.05) in average daily gain and feed conversion ratio as α-tocopherol levels increased. Left and right testicular weights showed a linear increase (P < 0.05) with increasing levels of α-tocopherol. Weights of left and right epididymis exhibited quadratic response (P < 0.05). Seminiferous tube area responded in a quadratic fashion (P < 0.05). There was a quadratic relationship (P < 0.05) between semen volume, straight-line velocity and live spermatozoa. Dead spermatozoa and head abnormalities exhibited linear decrease (P < 0.05). In conclusion, inclusion of α-tocopherol improved growth performance and fertility of Windsnyer boars.

Attitudes and practices of resource-limited farmers on the control of gastrointestinal nematodes in goats foraging in grasslands and forestlands.

Gastrointestinal nematode infestations remain one of the main constraints to goat productivity. A cross-sectional survey was conducted to investigate the perceptions of goat farmers on the infestation and control of gastrointestinal nematode infestation. A total of 282 goat farmers from two villages of Mbizana local municipality in Alfred Nzo district were interviewed. Higher prevalence of diseases, parasites and feed availability were among the major constraints to goat productivity. Gastrointestinal parasites were ranked as the major constraint by farmers in the grassland than those in the forestland. Ordinal logistic regression analyses revealed that farmers in the grassland were 3.2 times more likely to experience gastrointestinal nematode infestation than those in the forestland (P < 0.05). On both vegetation types, tethered goats were perceived to have higher (P < 0.05) GIN infestation compared with free browsing goats. Poor farmers were 3.1 times more (P < 0.05) likely to experience high GIN infestation compared with less poor farmers. Farmers in the grassland were 2.1 times more likely to control GI nematode infestation than to those in the forestland (P < 0.05). Intervention strategies to control gastrointestinal nematodes should mainly target farmers from the grassland vegetation since they experience higher infestation rates of gastrointestinal nematodes.

Mitigating the effects of drought on cattle production in communal rangelands of Zimbabwe.

The objective of the study was to examine strategies employed by farmers to mitigate the effects of drought on cattle production in communal rangelands of Zimbabwe. Data were collected from a total of 316 communal cattle farming households selected from semi-arid and sub-humid environments (158 each) using structured questionnaires. Farmers in sub-humid environments mostly resorted to controlled migration in search of pastures during drought whilst those in semi-arid environments mainly supplemented their cattle (P < 0.05). Travelling long distances to centralized water tanks was ranked first as a strategy to counter water shortage in sub-humid environments whilst in semi-arid environments farmers mostly resorted to use of boreholes (P < 0.05). Farmers in sub-humid environments were more than twice more likely to supplement their cattle than those in semi-arid environments (P < 0.05). Crop residues were the main type of feed used to supplement cattle during drought periods (P > 0.05). Mashona cattle were the most preferred breed (P > 0.05). Conformation traits were less preferred in both environments (P < 0.05). It was concluded that communal cattle producers in both environments use dietary supplementation with crop residues and controlled migration in search of pastures and water to mitigate drought effects. Given the shortcomings associated with drought mitigation strategies being used by communal cattle farmers, current findings suggest the need to design and implement sustainable strategies such as breeding cattle for drought resilience and selective supplementary feeding.

Relationship between inclusion level of Vachellia tortilis leaf meal and behavioral activities of finishing pigs.

OBJECTIVE: The study was conducted to establish a relationship between inclusion level of Vachellia tortilis leaf meal and time spent on different behavioral activities displayed by finishing pigs. METHODS: A total of forty-eight male Large White × Landrace finishing pigs with a mean (± standard deviation) body weight of 63.8 ± 3.28 kg aged 14 wks were assigned to individual pens in a completely randomized design. Pigs were fed on diets containing 0, 30, 60, 90, 120 and 150 g/kg dry matter (DM) of V. tortilis leaf meal ad libitum with fresh water provided throughout the trial. There were eight pigs in each experimental diet. The behavior of pigs was observed for three wks twice a wk from 0600 to 1800 h using six closed circuit television cameras. RESULTS: Increasing levels of V. tortilis leaf meal caused a linear decrease (p &lt;0.05) in time spent eating, lying down and the number of visit to the feeder. Time spent standing and biting objects increased linearly (p &lt;0.05) with increasing inclusion level of V. tortilis leaf meal. The was a negative linear relationship (p &lt;0.05) between condensed tannins versus time spent eating, lying down and number of feeder visits. Condensed tannins showed a positive linear relationship (p &lt;0.05) with time spent standing and biting objects. Neutral detergent fiber caused a linear decrease (p &lt;0.05) in number of feeder visits, time spent eating, time spent standing. CONCLUSION: Inclusion level of V. tortilis leaf meal reduces time spent eating, lying down and the number of feeder visit while prolonging time spent standing and biting of objects. Condensed tannins and dietary fiber are among nutritional factors affecting behavioral activities displayed by finishing pigs.

Effects of drought on cattle production in sub-tropical environments.

The objective of the study was to assess farmer perceptions on effects of drought on cattle production in sub-tropical environments. Data was collected from a total of 314 cattle-owning households from semi-arid and sub-humid environments using pre-tested structured questionnaires. Drought was highly ranked common cause of cattle loss in semi-arid (ranked third) whilst in sub-humid conditions it was lowly ranked (ranked sixth; P < 0.05). Water shortage was ranked as the constituent of drought with the most severe impact on cattle production in semi-arid environments whilst in sub-humid environments feed shortage was ranked first (P < 0.05). Mortalities were ranked as the most common effect of drought in semi-arid environments whilst in sub-humid environments parasite incidence was ranked first (P < 0.01). Lactating and pregnant cows in sub-humid environments were more likely to be emaciated during droughts periods than those in semi-arid environments (P Ë‚ 0.05). Starvation, a stressor which is directly related to drought, was the major cause of cattle losses in sub-humid environments. Diseases and parasites, which can be exacerbated by drought, were the major cause of cattle losses in semi-arid environments. Cows and calves are more vulnerable to emaciation during drought periods in sub-humid environments than in semi-arid environments.

Effects of environmental enrichment on behaviour, physiology and performance of pigs - A review.

This paper aims to critically analyse and synthesise existing knowledge concerning the use of environmental enrichment and its effect on behavior, physiology and performance of pigs housed in intensive production systems. The objective is also to provide clarity as to what constitutes successful enrichment and recommend when and how enrichment should be used. Environmental enrichment is usually understood as an attempt to improve animal welfare and to a lesser extent, performance. Common enrichment objects used are straw bedding, suspended ropes and wood shavings, toys, rubber tubings, colored plastic keys, table tennis balls, chains and strings. These substrates need to be chewable, deformable, destructible and ingestible. For enrichment to be successful four goals are essential. Firstly, enrichment should increase the number and range of normal behaviors; secondly, it should prevent the phenomenon of anomalous behaviors or reduce their frequency; thirdly, it should increase positive use of the environment such as space and fourthly it should increase the ability of the animals to deal with behavioral and physiological challenges. The performance, behavior and physiology of pigs in enriched environments is similar or in some cases slightly better when compared with barren environments. In studies where there was no improvement, it should be borne in mind that enriching the environment may not always be practical and yield positive results due to factors such as type of enrichment substrates, duration of provision and type of enrichment used. The review also identifies possible areas that still need further research, especially in understanding the role of enrichment, novelty, breed differences and other enrichment alternatives.

Interaction effects of pen environment and sex on behavior, skin lesions and physiology of Windsnyer pigs.

OBJECTIVE: The study was carried to determine the interaction effects of pen enrichment and sex on behavioral activities, skin lesions and physiology of Windsnyer pigs. METHODS: Forty-eight growing Windsnyer pigs of both sex, with an average initial body weight of 21.6 (±9.01) kg were used. Four pigs were randomly assigned to either enriched or barren pens at a stocking density of 0.35 m2/pig. Enriched pens contained 2 L bottles filled with stones and suspended at head level on ropes stretching across the pens. In addition, two plastic balls (90 mm in diameter) and 500 mL bottles (235 mm long) were placed on the floor of each enriched pen. RESULTS: Pigs in barren environments had higher heart rates (p<0.001) than those in enriched pens. There was an interaction of pen environment and sex on rectal temperature (p<0.001). Females in enriched pens had higher rectal temperatures (p<0.05) than females in barren pens. There was no interaction of pen environment and sex on time spent eating and drinking (p>0.05). Time spent bullying was influenced (p<0.05) by pen environment and sex. Female pigs in barren environment spent more time on bullying than females in enriched pens. There was an interaction of pen environment and sex on time spent lying down and walking (p<0.05). Female pigs in enriched pens spent more time lying down than females in barren pens. Males in barren pens spent more time walking than males in enriched pens while no effect of pen environment was observed in females. There was an interaction of pen environment and sex on the number of skin lesions in the head, neck and shoulder region and other parts of the body (p<0.05). CONCLUSION: It was concluded that pen enrichment reduced the number of skin lesions and anti-social behaviors, especially for female pigs. There is a need, therefore of housing indigenous pigs under confinement.

Farmer perceptions on factors influencing water scarcity for goats in resource-limited communal farming environments.

The objective of the study was to compare factors influencing water scarcity for goats in areas where there are seasonal and perennial rivers under resource-limited communal farming environments. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire (n = 285) administered randomly to smallholder goat farmers from areas with seasonal and perennial rivers. Ceremonies was ranked as the major reason for keeping goats. Water scarcity was ranked the major constraint to goat production in areas with seasonal rivers when compared to areas with perennial rivers (P < 0.05). Dams and rivers were ranked as the major water source for goat drinking in areas with seasonal and perennial river systems during cool dry and rainy seasons. Rivers were ranked as an important water source for goat drinking where there are seasonal and perennial river systems during the cool dry season. Households located close (≤ 3 km) to the nearest water source reported drinking water for goats a scarce resource. These results show that river systems, season and distance to the nearest water source from a household were factors perceived by farmers to influence water scarcity for goats in resource-limited communal farming environments. Farmers should explore water-saving strategies such as recycling wastewater from kitchens and bathrooms as an alternative water source. The government may assist farmers through sinking boreholes to supply water for both humans and livestock.

Fiber source and inclusion level affects characteristics of excreta from growing pigs.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study was to determine the influence of varying fibrous diets on fecal characteristics of growing pigs. METHODS: A total of 104 pigs (initial weight 18±2.0 kg) were used in the study. They were housed in individual pens and fed on diets containing maize cob, grass hay, lucerne hay, maize stover, and sunflower husk. These fibers were included at 0, 80, 160, 240, 320 and 400 g/kg. Fecal and urine samples were collected. RESULTS: Fecal output was largest amongst pigs fed on diets containing grass hay and maize stover (p<0.05). Nitrogen content was highest in feces from pigs fed on sunflower husk (p< 0.05). Pigs fed on diets containing maize stover and maize cobs produced the largest concentrations of short chain fatty acids. Acetate concentration was high in feces of pigs fed maize stover than those fed grass hay and lucerne hay (p<0.05). As the level of fiber inclusion increased, fecal consistency and nitrogen content increased linearly (p<0.05). Urea nitrogen decreased as the inclusion level increased across all the fibers (p<0.05), with maize cobs containing the largest content of urea nitrogen. As dietary fiber content increased, fecal nitrogen content also increased (p<0.05). CONCLUSION: It was concluded that different fiber sources influence fecal characteristics, thereby having different implications on pig waste management. It is vital to monitor fiber inclusion thresholds so as to easily manage environmental pollutants such as butyrate that contribute to odors.

Effect of fibrous diets on chemical composition and odours from pig slurry.

OBJECTIVE: Incorporating high fibre ingredients into pig diets has the potential to reduce odour emissions from of pigs. The current study was carried out to determine effect of diets containing 0, 80 and 160 g/kg of each of lucerne hay, maize cobs and sunflower husks on the chemical characteristics and odours from pig slurries. METHODS: Twenty eight pigs averaging 18±2.0 kg were kept in individual cages, over four weeks. All pigs were fed ad libitum. Faeces and urine were collected, mixed in a 1:2.3 ratio (w/w), stored and fermented for 16 days in a temperature controlled room at 22°C±2.3°C. The slurry was sampled twice (on day 1 and on day 16) of the fermentation period and analysed for pH, chemical oxygen demand (COD), nitrogen and short chain fatty acids (SCFA) concentration, on wet basis. All samples were tested for odour offensiveness using 18 panelists. A scale of 1 to 5 was used to rank the odour severity, (1 = not offensive, 5 = extremely offensive). RESULTS: Slurry pH and COD varied with fibre source (p<0.05). On day 16, COD for lucerne hay, sunflower husk and maize cobs were 369, 512, and 425 (standard error of the mean = 34.2) mg of oxygen per litre. Total SCFA concentration was higher at day 16 than day 1 (p< 0.05). Odour offensiveness varied with fibre source across both incubation periods (p<0.05). Sunflower husks and lucerne hay-based diets were rated as less offensive (mean rank = 2.2) than maize cob diets (mean rank of 4.3) (p<0.05). CONCLUSION: It was concluded that different fibre sources and incubation period influence chemical composition and odour of the slurry. There is, thereby, a need to incorporate locally available fibrous feeds in the diet of pigs because they have an economical and environmental relevance to pig management.

Nutritional quality and amino acid composition of diets consumed by scavenging hens and cocks across seasons.

The objective of the study was to determine the effect of season on nutritional quality and amino acid composition of diets that scavenging hens and cocks consume. Thirty hens and 30 cocks were purchased and slaughtered during each of the rainy, post rainy, cool dry and hot dry seasons. A total of 240 birds were used in the study. Fresh crop content weights were high (P < 0.05) during the cool dry season. Cereal grains, kitchen wastes, green materials, animal protein sources and inorganic materials were the main components of the crop contents. Crop contents varied with season and sex of bird (P < 0.05). The cereal grain weights were high during cool dry and hot dry seasons. Weights of animal protein sources (insects, locusts and termites) were higher (P < 0.05) during the rainy and post rainy seasons. Hens contained more animal protein sources (P < 0.05) than cocks. Hens had a higher (P < 0.05) lysine content during the rainy season than cocks. Histidine, serine, arginine, threonine, cysteine and lysine contents varied with seasons (P < 0.05). Methionine did not vary with season and sex of the bird. Nutritional supplementation of village chickens should, therefore, vary with seasons.

Constraints to Hamari sheep farming under range conditions in Darfur and Kordofan Regions of Western Sudan.

The study was conducted to identify the major production constraints of Hamari sheep in Darfur and Kordofan Regions of Western Sudan. A structured questionnaire was administered to 128 farmers in Darfur and Kordofan. Feed shortages, prevalence of diseases and parasites, and predation were more severe in Darfur than Kordofan (P < 0.05). Thefts were ranked higher by farmers using the sedentary system compared to those using semi-nomadic system (P < 0.05). Water shortage was ranked higher by farmers with small flocks, large flocks, semi-nomadic and sedentary husbandry system in Kordofan than their counterparts in Darfur Region (P < 0.05). Farmers practising semi-nomadic husbandry system and sedentary system in Darfur region ranked diseases, parasites and predation higher than those practising semi-nomadic and sedentary system in Kordofan region (P < 0.05). Feed shortage was ranked higher as a challenge by farmers practising semi-nomadic system in Darfur Region than those practising semi-nomadic system in Kordofan Region (P < 0.05). It can be concluded that the severity of challenges facing Hamari sheep producers vary with flock size, region and production system used.

Feed intake and growth performance of growing pigs fed on Acacia tortilis leaf meal treated with polyethylene glycol.

The objective of the study was to determine the response in feed intake and performance of pigs fed on incremental levels of polyethylene glycol (PEG). Forty-eighty male F1 hybrid pigs were randomly allotted to six diets containing 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 g/kg of PEG, respectively. Acacia tortilis leaf meal was included at a rate of 150 g/kg. Each diet was offered ad libitum to eight pigs in individual pens. Average daily feed intake (ADFI), scaled feed intake (SFI), average daily gain (ADG), and gain to feed ratio (G:F) were determined weekly. The ADG showed a linear response to PEG (p < 0.01). The linear regression equation was y = 0.0061x + 0.6052 (R(2) = 0.64). There was a quadratic response to PEG on ADFI, and SFI (p < 0.01) and G:F (p > 0.05). The regression equations and R(2) values were as follows: ADFI y = 0.0008x(2) - 00086x + 1.2339 (R(2) = 0.96), SFI y = 0.0147x(2) - 0.2349x + 40.096 (R(2) = 0.95), and G:F ratio y = 0.0002x(2) - 0.0017x + 0.5168 (R(2) = 0.56). The ADFI, SFI, and ADG increased as weeks of feeding progressed (p < 0.01), but the G:F ratio decreased as weeks increased. It can be concluded that the relationship between PEG inclusion and performance of growing pigs fed on A. tortilis is exponential, rather than linear. The economic benefit of using PEG depend on cost of labor, availability of Acacia, costs of harvesting together with processing, and acceptability of the pork.

Nutritionally related blood metabolites and performance of finishing pigs fed on graded levels of dietary fibre.

The objective of the study was to determine effect of feeding fibrous diets on performance and biochemical profiles of finishing pigs. A total of 84 clinically healthy male pigs were used in the experiment. Body weight of the pigs at the beginning of the experiment was 85 ± 10.1 kg. Maize cob (MC), sunflower hulls (SH), lucerne hay (LH) and dried citrus pulp (PU) were incorporated in a basal diet for finishing pigs at different inclusion levels of 0, 80, 160, 240, 320 and 400 g/kg. Effects of week of feeding, fibre source and inclusion level of fibre were significant (P < 0.05). Pigs consumed more LH compared to MC, SH and PU. Average daily gain was high for pigs consuming diets with inclusion levels of 0, 80, 160 and 240 g/kg and low for pigs consuming 320 and 400 g/kg inclusion level of fibre in a diet. There was an increase in serum total concentration (TP) with an increase in PU, MC and LH in pig diets (P < 0.05). Creatine kinase (CK) concentrations decreased as levels of PU, LH and MC increased (P < 0.05). Increasing inclusion level of LH and SH in pig diets resulted in an increase in glycated haemoglobin concentration (P < 0.05). It can be concluded that level of PU, LH, MC and SH in diets of finishing pigs negatively influences average daily feed intake, average daily gain and biochemical profiles.

Comparison of trait preferences of Nguni farmers located in semi-arid and sub-humid environments.

The objective of the study was to compare trait preferences of Nguni cattle owners located in semi-arid and sub-humid environments. Data were collected from a total of 300 Nguni cattle-owning households using structured questionnaires, 150 households from each environment. Stature, body depth and body length were preferred more in sub-humid areas than in semi-arid areas. In sub-humid environments, preference was given to fertility traits, with farmers more likely to highly prefer calving interval and age at first calving (AFC). Semi-arid areas had more households with cows with extended calving interval (2 and 3 years) than sub-humid areas. Environmental differences affect fertility of Nguni cows and trait preferences of communal farmers in Southern Africa. Differences in environment and trait preferences of farmers should be considered when designing communal breeding programmes.

Cellular responses to Rhipicephalus microplus infestations in pre-sensitised cattle with differing phenotypes of infestation.

The blue tick, Rhipicephalus microplus, threatens cattle production in most tropical and subtropical areas of the world. Delayed skin hypersensitivity reactions are thought to cause Nguni cattle to be more resistant to R. microplus than Bonsmara cattle yet the cellular mechanisms responsible for these differences have not been classified. Tick counts and inflammatory cell infiltrates in skin biopsies from feeding sites of adult R. microplus ticks were determined in 9-month-old Nguni and Bonsmara heifers to determine the cellular mechanisms responsible for tick immunity. Nguni heifers (1.7 ± 0.03) had lower (P < 0.05) tick counts than the Bonsmaras (2.0 ± 0.03). Parasitized sites in Nguni heifers had higher counts of basophils, mast and mononuclear cells than those in the Bonsmara heifers. Conversely, parasitized sites in Nguni heifers had lower neutrophil and eosinophil counts than those in the Bonsmara heifers. Tick count was negatively correlated with basophil and mast cell counts and positively correlated with eosinophil counts in both breeds. In the Bonsmara breed, tick count was positively correlated with mononuclear cell counts. Cellular responses to adult R. microplus infestations were different and correlated with differences in tick resistance in Nguni and Bonsmara cattle breeds. It is essential to further characterise the molecular composition of the inflammatory infiltrate elicited by adult R. microplus infestation to fully comprehend immunity to ticks in cattle.