Virtual Reality for Anatomy and Surgical Teaching.

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to significant challenges when it comes to the delivery of education across multiple domains. There has been a shift in paradigm towards the use of new innovative methods for the delivery of training within medicine and surgery. In this chapter, there is an outline of one such innovative method, the use of virtual reality for anatomy and surgical teaching. At all levels of training, undergraduate through to postgraduate specialty-based training, conventional methods of learning anatomy have had to be adapted due to difficulties encountered during the pandemic. The importance of hands-on cadaveric anatomy experience in surgical training cannot be understated. The decline in face-to-face sessions, as well as a reduction in bedside training due to the prioritisation of service provision and diminishing time spent in theatre have meant less exposure for trainees when it comes to learning procedural skills. Virtual Reality in Medicine and Surgery, a free for trainee resource utilising virtual reality technology, delivered 51-week courses with the aim to ensure high-quality training still occurred. The authors believe there is immense potential for immersive technology when it comes to the future of training within medicine and surgery.

Factors affecting prognosis in locoregional recurrence of oral squamous cell carcinoma.

BACKGROUND: Recurrence of oral squamous cell carcinoma (rOSCC) after primary treatment is associated with poor survival outcomes. Salvage treatment with further surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy has high morbidity, making patient selection crucial. However, in the recurrence setting, reliable stratification data are scarce. Decision-making in this context is consequently complex. We investigated factors influencing overall survival after rOSCC. METHODS: Retrospective cohort study of patients with rOSCC (n = 83) at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital Birmingham, UK between 2006 and 2016. Associations with overall survival were analysed using univariate and multivariate analyses to identify important clinical prognostic indicators. RESULTS: Overall survival at 1 year was 32.5% and at 5 years was 18.1% after a median follow-up of 7.4 months. Multivariate analysis identified four independent predictors of overall survival following rOSCC: size of primary tumour (HR 2.077; 95% CI 1.034-4.172), extent of recurrent disease (HR 3.286; 95% CI 1.545-6.991), history of moderate alcohol consumption (HR 0.351; 95% CI 0.162-0.763), and close or positive margins at primary resection (HR 1.955; 95% CI 1.063-3.595). CONCLUSIONS: We identified four key factors that help prognostication and risk stratification of rOSCC. Given the high morbidity associated with salvage treatment, we recommend that the multidisciplinary team (MDT) and the patient weigh these factors carefully when considering further treatment. Further investigation of the biology underlying these oncophenotypes may contribute to better patient stratification.

Virtual reality technology for surgical learning: qualitative outcomes of the first virtual reality training course for emergency and essential surgery delivered by a UK-Uganda partnership.

INTRODUCTION: The extensive resources needed to train surgeons and maintain skill levels in low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs) are limited and confined to urban settings. Surgical education of remote/rural doctors is, therefore, paramount. Virtual reality (VR) has the potential to disseminate surgical knowledge and skill development at low costs. This study presents the outcomes of the first VR-enhanced surgical training course, 'Global Virtual Reality in Medicine and Surgery', developed through UK-Ugandan collaborations. METHODS: A mixed-method approach (survey and semistructured interviews) evaluated the clinical impact and barriers of VR-enhanced training. Course content focused on essential skills relevant to Uganda (general surgery, obstetrics, trauma); delivered through: (1) hands-on cadaveric training in Brighton (scholarships for LMIC doctors) filmed in 360°; (2) virtual training in Kampala (live-stream via low-cost headsets combined with smartphones) and (3) remote virtual training (live-stream via smartphone/laptop/headset). RESULTS: High numbers of scholarship applicants (n=130); registrants (Kampala n=80; remote n=1680); and attendees (Kampala n=79; remote n=556, 25 countries), demonstrates widespread appetite for VR-enhanced surgical education. Qualitative analysis identified three key themes: clinical education and skill development limitations in East Africa; the potential of VR to address some of these via 360° visualisation enabling a 'knowing as seeing' mechanism; unresolved challenges regarding accessibility and acceptability. CONCLUSION: Outcomes from our first global VR-enhanced essential surgical training course demonstrating dissemination of surgical skills resources in an LMIC context where such opportunities are scarce. The benefits identified included environmental improvements, cross-cultural knowledge sharing, scalability and connectivity. Our process of programme design demonstrates that collaboration across high-income and LMICs is vital to provide locally relevant training. Our data add to growing evidence of extended reality technologies transforming surgery, although several barriers remain. We have successfully demonstrated that VR can be used to upscale postgraduate surgical education, affirming its potential in healthcare capacity building throughout Africa, Europe and beyond.

Determining the Effectiveness of Fibrin Sealants in Reducing Complications in Patients Undergoing Lateral Neck Dissection (DEFeND): A Randomised External Pilot Trial.

OBJECTIVES: High-quality randomised controlled trials (RCT) to support the use of Fibrin Sealants (FS) in neck dissection (ND) are lacking. The DEFeND trial assessed critical pilot/feasibility questions and signals from clinical outcomes to inform a future definitive trial. PATIENTS AND METHODS: The study design piloted was a blinded surgical RCT. All participants underwent unilateral ND for head and neck cancer. Interventional arm: ND with application of FS. CONTROL ARM: ND alone. Feasibility outcomes included recruitment, effectiveness of blinding, protocol adherence and evaluating administrative processes. Clinical outcomes included surgical complications (primary outcome), drainage volume, time to drain removal, length of hospital stay, pain and the Neck Dissection Impairment Index. RESULTS: Recruitment completed ahead of time. Fifty-three patients were recruited, and 48 were randomised at a rate of 5.3 patients/month. Blinding of patients, research nurses and outcome assessors was effective. Two protocol deviations occurred. Two patients were lost to follow-up. The mean (SD) Comprehensive Complication Index in the interventional arm was 6.5 (12.8), and it was 9.9 (14.2) in the control arm. The median (IQR) time to drain removal (days) was shorter in the interventional arm (2.67 (2.42, 3.58) vs. 3.40 (2.50, 4.27)). However, this did not translate to a clinically significant reduction in median (IQR) length of hospital stay in days (intervention: 3.48 (2.64, 4.54), control: 3.74 (3.11, 4.62)). CONCLUSION: The proposed trial design was effective, and a definitive surgical trial is feasible. Whilst there was a tendency for FS to improve clinical outcomes, the effect size did not reach clinical or statistical significance. (ISRCTN99181100).

Diagnostic accuracy of intraoperative margin assessment techniques in surgery for head and neck squamous cell carcinoma: A meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Positive margins following head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) surgery lead to significant morbidity and mortality. Existing Intraoperative Margin Assessment (IMA) techniques are not widely used due to limitations in sampling technique, time constraints and resource requirements. We performed a meta-analysis of the diagnostic performance of existing IMA techniques in HNSCC, providing a benchmark against which emerging techniques may be judged. METHODS: The study was conducted according to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) reporting guidelines. Studies were included if they reported diagnostic metrics of techniques used during HNSCC surgery, compared with permanent histopathology. Screening, manuscript review and data extraction was performed by multiple independent observers. Pooled sensitivity and specificity were estimated using the bivariate random effects model. RESULTS: From an initial 2344 references, 35 studies were included for meta-analysis. Sensitivity (Sens), specificity (Spec), diagnostic odds ratio (DOR) and area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUROC) were calculated for each group (n, Sens, Spec, DOR, AUROC): frozen section = 13, 0.798, 0.991, 309.8, 0.976; tumour-targeted fluorescence (TTF) = 5, 0.957, 0.827, 66.4, 0.944; optical techniques = 10, 0.919, 0.855, 58.9, 0.925; touch imprint cytology = 3, 0.925, 0.988, 51.1, 0.919; topical staining = 4, 0.918, 0.759, 16.4, 0.833. CONCLUSIONS: Frozen section and TTF had the best diagnostic performance. Frozen section is limited by sampling error. TTF shows promise but involves administration of a systemic agent. Neither is currently in widespread clinical use. Emerging techniques must demonstrate competitive diagnostic accuracy whilst allowing rapid, reliable, cost-effective results.

Academic Training in Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery - when and how to enter the pathway.

Entering into surgical academia can seem a daunting prospect for an oral and maxillofacial surgery (OMFS) trainee. However, the streamlining of academic training by the NIHR to create the integrated academic training (IAT) pathway has simplified academic training and more clearly defined academic positions and entry points for trainees. In this article we review the current NIHR IAT pathway and the various grades and entry points available to OMF surgeons, both pre- and post-doctoral. We highlight the unique challenges facing OMF trainees and provide advice and insight from both junior and senior OMFS academics. Finally, we focus on the planning and application for a doctoral research fellowship - discussing funding streams available to OMF surgeons.

Dental implants and risk of bleeding in patients on oral anticoagulants: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Dental implant placement is safe and predictable, yet optimal management of anticoagulated patients remains controversial. Whilst cessation of anticoagulation pre-operatively should decrease risks of bleeding, risk of thrombosis increases. We aim to define risk of bleeding in patients on oral anticoagulation who are undergoing dental implant placement, in order to establish best management. METHODS: This systematic review is registered with the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) PROSPERO database (Registration No: CRD42021233929). We performed a systematic review as per Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidance. Studies were identified using an agreed search strategy within the OVID Gateway (this included Pubmed, MEDLINE, Cochrane Collaborative). Studies assessing bleeding complications in patients who were undergoing dental implant placement were selected. The primary outcome was bleeding events in anticoagulated patients undergoing dental implant placement. Secondary outcomes included any complication requiring further intervention. RESULTS: We identified 182 studies through screening, and after review of titles and abstracts reduced this to 8 studies. In these studies, 1467 participants received at least 2366 implants. Studies were analysed for quality using the ROBINS-I risk of bias tool. Four studies were retrospective case reviews, and four were prospective reviews, three of which also blinded the operator to anticoagulation status. There was significant heterogeneity between the included studies. Meta-analysis showed an increased risk of bleeding (RR, 2.30; 95% CI, 1.25-4.24 p = 0.37 I = 7%) when implants were placed in the presence of anticoagulation however these were not clinically significant haemorrhagic events. CONCLUSION: The continuation of anticoagulants peri-operatively during dental implant surgery does increase the risk of clinically non-significant peri- and post-operative bleeding. Dental implant surgery encompasses a broad spectrum of procedures ranging from minor to more invasive surgery with simple local haemostatic measures mitigating the risk of bleeding. The decision to discontinue anticoagulants prior to dental implant surgery must consider patient and surgical factors with the clinician undertaking a risk-balance assessment.

Head and neck oncological ablation and reconstruction in the COVID-19 era - our experience to date.

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused unprecedented disruption to the routine operations of healthcare services across the world. As the potential duration of the pandemic remains uncertain, the need to develop strategies to continue urgent elective services has received increasing attention. A solution adopted in the Kent, Sussex and Surrey area of England has been to create COVID-19-protected cancer hubs. The Queen Victoria Hospital is the designated hub for head and neck cancer services in the area. We report on the evolution of the head and neck cancer care pathway and standard operating protocols put in place and how these have combined both national guidelines and local problem solving. It is hoped that our experience can help guide other centres as they re-establish head and neck cancer services during the ongoing pandemic.

Evolving Technologies for Tissue Cutting.

This article reviews evolving and lesser known technologies for tissue cutting and their application in oral and maxillofacial surgery.

Oral cysticercosis.

Cysticercosis is the result of infection with the larval stage of the tapeworm, Taenia solium. The parasite may settle at any site in the body without causing symptoms, which arise almost exclusively from the involvement of brain or eye, and this may occur several years after infection. Cysticercosis is one of the leading causes of acquired epilepsy in Latin America, parts of Asia, and Africa. More cases are being reported in other countries as a result of immigration from endemic areas. Cysticercosis may cause cystic swellings or nodules in the mouth, and these may be the only evidence of the disease. We present a healthy patient who had multiple intraoral cystic swellings that were diagnosed as cysticercosis in a biopsy specimen. Subsequent investigations showed cysticerci in the brain.

Efficacy, outcomes, and complication rates of different surgical and nonsurgical treatment modalities for recurrent/residual oropharyngeal carcinoma: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Treatment of recurrent oropharyngeal cancer is widely thought to have poor outcomes. Justification for treatment, especially in advanced cases, can be difficult. METHODS: A systematic search of MEDLINE, Embase, and Cochrane databases was conducted. Included studies reported specific recurrent oropharyngeal cancer survival data. RESULTS: Twenty-two retrospective studies were included. Pooled 3-year overall survival (OS) was 26% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 22% to 29%; I squared = 40.7%; p = .057). Pooled 5-year OS was 23% (95% CI = 20% to 27%; I squared = 73.9%; p = .000). Surgical treatment was superior to radiation (5-year OS 26% vs 16%, respectively; p < .001). The 5-year OS improved over time: 18% in the pre-2000 cohort; 35% in the mixed pre-2000 and post-2000 group; and 51% in the post-2000 cohort (p < .001). CONCLUSION: Outcomes have improved considerably over the last 2 decades, resulting in approximately 50% overall 5-year survival. Human papillomavirus (HPV) status, patient selection, and improvements in care may explain this. © 2016 The Authors Head & Neck Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Head Neck, 2016 © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Head Neck 38: 1855-1861, 2016.

Features and prognostic utility of biopsy in oral squamous cell carcinoma.

BACKGROUND: Traditional approaches in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) management utilize biopsy tissue for diagnostic purposes only. Adverse prognostic features, such as the tumor depth, are usually determined from final resection specimens, but are seldom studied in biopsy tissue. METHODS: A preliminary study of 139 consecutive biopsies compared biopsy size with T classification, tumor site, and operator grade, and biopsy tumor depth with the true tumor depth. RESULTS: This study demonstrated that biopsy size is independent of T classification (p = .44), subsite (p = .86), and operator grade (p = .10). The biopsy tumor depth significantly underrepresented true tumor depth (2.5 mm, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.4-2.9 vs 8.2 mm, 95% CI = 6.5-9.9; p < .001), confirming the limited prognostic utility of biopsies in OSCC. CONCLUSION: A future clinical trial will compare the routine biopsy technique with standardized deeper biopsy techniques using punch biopsy to sample invasive fronts and investigate opportunities for up-front staging using a combination of histological features and epithelial and stromal molecular biomarkers in OSCC. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Head Neck 38: E1857-E1862, 2016.

Hyperbaric oxygen in the management of late radiation injury to the head and neck. Part I: treatment.

Osteoradionecrosis (ORN) is a serious condition following treatment for head and neck cancer with serious associated morbidity and mortality. While the use of hyperbaric oxygen (HBO) in treating established osteoradionecrosis has been standard practice in many units for years, the evidence base for this remains remarkably weak. The published evidence has been made even more controversial by trial protocols that do not use HBO as it is generally advocated. This review describes the classification, incidence, and treatment of ORN, and explores the available published evidence with particular emphasis on randomised trials of treatment with HBO.

Technique of temporomandibular joint replacement using a patient-specific reconstruction system in the edentulous patient.

The dental occlusion sets the intermaxillary relation during planning, construction of a prosthesis, and surgery for total replacement of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ), and enables accurate placement of the prosthesis. However, in edentulous patients this no longer exists. We describe techniques to overcome the problems encountered in such patients having TMJ replacement using the patient-specific TMJ Concepts(®) system (Ventura, California, USA).

Impact of Modernising Medical Careers on basic surgical training and experience of oral and maxillofacial higher surgical trainees.

Modernising Medical Careers (MMC) is a programme for change that aims to improve the quality of patients' care through improvement in postgraduate medical education and training. Its introduction had far reaching affects and many shortcoming due to its failure to take into account the craft specialties. The aim of this paper is to illustrate the impact of MMC on oral and maxillofacial surgical (OMFS) training. An online questionnaire was distributed to OMFS trainees, and data were gathered about current position, year of training, duration and specialties worked during basic surgical training, stage of completion of examinations and courses, and overall satisfaction with training. Comparisons were made between those who had been trained before and after MMC was introduced. Ninety-five trainees (68%) responded. Of these 66 (69%) had basic surgical training before the introduction of MMC and 29 (31%) afterwards. MMC shortened overall time spent on basic surgical training of OMFS trainees by half, to only 1 year. There were similarities between the two groups in terms of the range of specialties experienced. MMC also resulted in more trainees starting higher surgical training without their Membership of the Royal College of Surgeons. There was greater satisfaction with BST for the pre-MMC group than the post-MMC group. It is hoped that the recent changes to training that were implemented after this study will address some of the shortcomings that we have identified.