Versatile all-digital transport-of-intensity based wavefront sensor and adaptive optics using a DMD.

Measuring and correcting wavefront aberrations is an important process in a wide variety of disciplines, from ophthalmology, laser cutting, and astronomy to free-space communication and microscopy, and always relies on measuring intensities to infer phase. One approach is to use the transport-of-intensity as a means for phase retrieval, exploiting the connection between observed energy flow in optical fields and their wavefronts. Here we present a simple scheme, using a digital micro-mirror device (DMD), to perform angular spectrum propagation and extract the wavefront of optical fields at various wavelengths, dynamically, with high resolution and tuneable sensitivity. We verify the capability of our approach by extracting common Zernike aberrations, turbulent phase screens, and lens phases under static and dynamic conditions at multiple wavelengths and polarizations. We use this setup for adaptive optics, correcting distortion using a second DMD to apply conjugate phase modulation. We observed effective wavefront recovery under a variety of conditions which allowed for convenient real-time adaptive correction in a compact arrangement. Our approach provides an all-digital system that is versatile, cheap, fast, accurate, broadband and polarization invariant.

Synthetic spin dynamics with Bessel-Gaussian optical skyrmions.

Skyrmions are topologically stable fields that cannot be smoothly deformed into any other field configuration that differs topologically, that is, one that possesses a different integer topological invariant called the Skyrme number. They have been studied as 3-dimensional and 2-dimensional skyrmions in both magnetic and, more recently, optical systems. Here, we introduce an optical analogy to magnetic skyrmions and demonstrate their dynamics within a magnetic field. Our optical skyrmions and synthetic magnetic field are both engineered using superpositions of Bessel-Gaussian beams, with time dynamics observed over the propagation distance. We show that the skyrmionic form changes during propagation, exhibiting controllable periodic precession over a well defined range, analogous to time varying spin precession in homogeneous magnetic fields. This local precession manifests as the global beating between skyrmion types, while still maintaining the invariance of the Skyrme number, which we monitor through a full Stokes analysis of the optical field. Finally, we outline, through numerical simulation, how this approach could be extended to create time varying magnetic fields, offering free-space optical control as a powerful analogue to solid state systems.

Simulating multilevel diffractive optical elements on a spatial light modulator.

Multilevel diffractive optical elements (DOEs) offer a solution to approximate complex diffractive phase profiles in a stepwise manner. However, while much attention has focused on efficiency, the impact on modal content in the context of structured light has, to our best knowledge, remained unexplored. Here, we outline a simple theory that accounts for efficiency and modal purity in arbitrary structured light produced by multilevel DOEs. We make use of a phase-only spatial light modulator as a "testbed" to experimentally implement various multileveled diffractive profiles, including orbital angular momentum beams, Bessel beams, and Airy beams, outlining the subsequent efficiency and purity both theoretically and experimentally, confirming that a low number of multilevel steps can produce modes of high fidelity. Our work will be useful to those wishing to digitally evaluate modal effects from DOEs prior to physical fabrication.

Accelerating polarization structures in vectorial fields.

We generate optical fields whose polarization structures not only rotate about their propagation axis but also can be controlled to accelerate independently from their spatial profile. We show that by combining accelerated intensity transport with orthogonal polarization states, we can produce a vector beam that displays optical activity with periodical acceleration and deceleration of the Stokes vector during propagation. We achieve this with orthogonal, scalar fields, represented by weighted superpositions of oppositely charged Bessel beams. In addition to their creation, we show that the Stokes vector can be made to accelerate or decelerate at specific locations along the Poincaré sphere by tailoring the generating basis. We also witness an optical current, or intensity transport, between local positions in the field that corresponds with the occurrence of the state-of-polarization accelerating or decelerating.

Spatially resolved birefringence measurements with a digital micro-mirror device.

We demonstrate a novel technique to measure spatially resolved birefringence structures in an all-digital fashion with a digital micro-mirror device (DMD). The technique exploits the polarization independence of DMDs to apply holographic phase control to orthogonal polarization components and requires only a static linear polarizer as an analyzer for the resulting phase shift polarization measurements. We show the efficacy of this approach by spatially resolving complex polarization structures, including nano-structured metasurfaces, customized liquid crystal devices, as well as chiral L-Alanine and N-Acetyl-L-cystein crystals. Concentration dependent measurements of optical rotation in glucose and fructose solutions are also presented, demonstrating the technique's versatility. Unlike conventional approaches, our technique is calibration free and has no moving parts, offers high frame rates and wavelength independence, and is low cost, making it highly suitable to a range of applications, including pharmaceutical manufacturing, saccharimetry and stress imaging.

All-digital Stokes polarimetry with a digital micromirror device.

Stokes polarimetry is widely used to extract the polarization structure of optical fields, typically from six measurements, although it can be extracted from only four. To measure the required intensities, most approaches are based on optical polarization components. In this work, we present an all-digital approach that enables a rapid measure of all four intensities without any moving components. Our method employs a polarization grating (PG) to simultaneously project the incoming mode into left- and right-circular polarized states, followed by a polarization-insensitive digital micromirror device (DMD), which digitally introduces a phase retardance for the acquisition of the remaining two polarization states. We demonstrate how this technique can be applied to measuring the SoP, vectorness, and intramodal phase of optical fields, without any moving components, and shows excellent agreement with theory, illustrating fast, real-time polarimetry.

Digital Stokes polarimetry and its application to structured light: tutorial.

Stokes polarimetry is a mature topic in optics, most commonly performed to extract the polarization structure of optical fields for a range of diverse applications. For historical reasons, most Stokes polarimetry approaches are based on static optical polarization components that must be manually adjusted, prohibiting automated, real-time analysis of fast changing fields. Here we provide a tutorial on performing Stokes polarimetry in an all-digital approach, exploiting a modern optical toolkit based on liquid-crystal-on-silicon spatial light modulators and digital micromirror devices. We explain in a tutorial fashion how to implement two digital approaches, based on these two devices, for extracting Stokes parameters in a fast, cheap, and dynamic manner. After outlining the core concepts, we demonstrate their applicability to the modern topic of structured light, and highlight some common experimental issues. In particular, we illustrate how digital Stokes polarimetry can be used to measure key optical parameters such as the state of polarization, degree of vectorness, and intra-modal phase of complex light fields.

Optics in Africa: introduction.

Africa has a long history in optics, but decades of turmoil have seen optical science in Africa advance only slowly, punching far below its weight. But a younger generation of scientists hold promise for the brighter future, addressing continental issues with photonics. In this Feature Issue on Optics in Africa we capture some of the exciting optical research from across the continent in 51 research reports, covering both fundamental and applied topics. The issue is supplemented by invited review articles that offer authoritative perspectives on the historical development of key research fields, from early advances in lasers to present-day progress in photonic materials. To encourage the exploration of new research directions, the issue has several tutorial articles that lower the entry barrier for emerging researchers, while highlighting the scope of research on the continent and its international context.

Development of a referral pathway framework for foetal alcohol spectrum disorder in the Pilbara.

INTRODUCTION: This article describes the process of mapping referral pathways to develop a localised resource to enhance the journey to diagnosis, treatment and support for foetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) in a regional community setting. METHODS: Over a 6-month period, a research officer engaged service providers in Port and South Hedland, Western Australia, using participatory action research methods. An iterative process included a service environment scan, interviews with service leaders and refinement of progressive drafts of the pathway through the Hedland FASD Network. A community reference group advised on cultural issues. RESULTS: Referral pathways for interagency sectors (health, education, justice) were developed. Three pathway schematics and a companion four-page referral protocol were endorsed. The pathways were disseminated to all service providers and consensus was reached to trial the pathways within existing service systems. CONCLUSION: The process of referral pathway development provided a service mapping and gapping exercise to facilitate service integration. Evaluation of the resource will be conducted using the RE-AIM framework. The referral pathways template has been adapted and trialled by health and other professionals in several sites across Australia. The model developed for FASD can be applied to other neurodevelopmental disorders.

Free-space optical communication link with shape-invariant orbital angular momentum Bessel beams.

We present an alternative orbital angular momentum (OAM) solution for free-space optical communications in the form of shape-invariant Bessel beams. We use a generalized approach for generating these long-range self-healing beams with a phase-only element encoded on a spatial light modulator and imbue them with OAM. We study the performance of helical OAM beams as well as these long-range Bessel-like OAM beams over a real-world outdoor optical link of 150 m and show comparable performance. In the process, we characterize the link and its impact on modal cross-talk.

Real and virtual propagation dynamics of angular accelerating white light beams.

Accelerating waves have received significant attention of late, first in the optical domain and later in the form of electron matter waves, and have found numerous applications in non-linear optics, material processing, microscopy, particle manipulation and laser plasma interactions. Here we create angular accelerating light beams with a potentially unlimited acceleration rate. By employing wavelength independent digital holograms for the creation and propagation of white light beams, we are able to study the resulting propagation in real and virtual space. We find that dephasing occurs for real propagation and that this can be compensated for in a virtual propagation scheme when single plane dynamics are important. Our work offers new insights into the propagation dynamics of such beams and provides a versatile tool for further investigations into propagating structured light fields.

Encoding information using Laguerre Gaussian modes over free space turbulence media.

We experimentally demonstrate an efficient information transmission technique using Laguerre Gaussian (LG) modes. This technique is based on multiplexing and demultiplexing multiple LG modes with different azimuthal and radial components. At the reception, the initially sent modes encoding the information are extracted with high fidelity using a complete decomposition allowing to identify a particular mode from a set of modes within a unique iteration. Importantly, we investigate the effects of the atmospheric turbulence on the proposed communication system. We believe that the proposed technique is promising for high-bit-rate spatial division multiplexing in optical fiber and free space communication systems.

Revealing the radial modes in vortex beams.

Light beams that carry orbital angular momentum are often approximated by modulating an initial beam, usually Gaussian, with an azimuthal phase variation to create a vortex beam. Such vortex beams are well defined azimuthally, but the radial profile is neglected in this generation approach. Here, we show that a consequence of this is that vortex beams carry very little energy in the desired zeroth radial order, as little as only a few percent of the incident power. We demonstrate this experimentally and illustrate how to overcome the problem by complex amplitude modulation of the incident field.

All-digital wavefront sensing for structured light beams.

We present a new all-digital technique to extract the wavefront of a structured light beam. Our method employs non-homogeneous polarization optics together with dynamic, digital holograms written to a spatial light modulator to measure the phase relationship between orthogonal polarization states in real-time, thereby accessing the wavefront information. Importantly, we show how this can be applied to measuring the wavefront of propagating light fields, over extended distances, without any moving components. We illustrate the versatility of the tool by measuring propagating optical vortices, Bessel, Airy and speckle fields. The comparison of the extracted and programmed wavefronts yields excellent agreement.

White light wavefront control with a spatial light modulator.

Spatial light modulators are ubiquitous tools for wavefront control and laser beam shaping but have traditionally been used with monochromatic sources due to the inherent wavelength dependence of the calibration process and subsequent phase manipulation. In this work we show that such devices can also be used to shape broadband sources without any wavelength dependence on the output beam's phase. We outline the principle mathematically and then demonstrate it experimentally using a supercontinuum source to shape rotating white-light Bessel beams carrying orbital angular momentum.

Measurement of the orbital angular momentum density of Bessel beams by projection into a Laguerre-Gaussian basis.

We present the measurement of the orbital angular momentum (OAM) density of Bessel beams and superpositions thereof by projection into a Laguerre-Gaussian basis. This projection is performed by an all-optical inner product measurement performed by correlation filters, from which the optical field can be retrieved in amplitude and phase. The derived OAM densities are compared to those obtained from previously stated azimuthal decomposition yielding consistent results.

Efficient sorting of Bessel beams.

We demonstrate the efficient sorter of Bessel beams separating both the azimuthal and radial components. This is based upon the recently reported transformation of angular to transverse momentum states. We separately identify over forty azimuthal and radial components, with a radial spacing of 1588 m(-1), and outline how the device could be used to identify the two spatial dimensions simultaneously.

Generating and measuring nondiffracting vector Bessel beams.

Nondiffracting vector Bessel beams are of considerable interest due to their nondiffracting nature and unique high-numerical-aperture focusing properties. Here we demonstrate their creation by a simple procedure requiring only a spatial light modulator and an azimuthally varying birefringent plate, known as a q-plate. We extend our control of both the geometric and dynamic phases to perform a polarization and modal decomposition on the vector field. We study both single-charged Bessel beams as well as superpositions and find good agreement with theory. Since we are able to encode nondiffracting modes with circular polarizations possessing different orbital angular momenta, we suggest these modes will be of interest in optical trapping, microscopy, and optical communication.

Reconstruction of laser beam wavefronts based on mode analysis.

We present the reconstruction of a laser beam wavefront from its mode spectrum and investigate in detail the impact of distinct aberrations on the mode composition. The measurement principle is presented on a Gaussian beam that is intentionally distorted by displaying defined aberrations on a spatial light modulator. The comparison of reconstructed and programmed wavefront aberrations yields excellent agreement, proving the high measurement fidelity.

Azimuthal decomposition with digital holograms.

We demonstrate a simple approach, using digital holograms, to perform a complete azimuthal decomposition of an optical field. Importantly, we use a set of basis functions that are not scale dependent so that unlike other methods, no knowledge of the initial field is required for the decomposition. We illustrate the power of the method by decomposing two examples: superpositions of Bessel beams and Hermite-Gaussian beams (off-axis vortex). From the measured decomposition we show reconstruction of the amplitude, phase and orbital angular momentum density of the field with a high degree of accuracy.