A survey of experimental stimulus presentation code sharing in major areas of psychology.

Computer code plays a vital role in modern science, from the conception and design of experiments through to final data analyses. Open sharing of code has been widely discussed as being advantageous to the scientific process, allowing experiments to be more easily replicated, helping with error detection, and reducing wasted effort and resources. In the case of psychology, the code used to present stimuli is a fundamental component of many experiments. It is not known, however, the degree to which researchers are sharing this type of code. To estimate this, we conducted a survey of 400 psychology papers published between 2016 and 2021, identifying those working with the open-source tools Psychtoolbox and PsychoPy that openly share stimulus presentation code. For those that did, we established if it would run following download and also appraised the code's usability in terms of style and documentation. It was found that only 8.4% of papers shared stimulus code, compared to 17.9% sharing analysis code and 31.7% sharing data. Of shared code, 70% ran directly or after minor corrections. For code that did not run, the main error was missing dependencies (66.7%). The usability of the code was moderate, with low levels of code annotation and minimal documentation provided. These results suggest that stimulus presentation code sharing lags behind other forms of code and data sharing, potentially due to less emphasis on such code in open-science discussions and in journal policies. The results also highlight a need for improved documentation to maximize code utility.

Breathing is coupled with voluntary initiation of mental imagery.

Previous research has suggested that bodily signals from internal organs are associated with diverse cortical and subcortical processes involved in sensory-motor functions, beyond homeostatic reflexes. For instance, a recent study demonstrated that the preparation and execution of voluntary actions, as well as its underlying neural activity, are coupled with the breathing cycle. In the current study, we investigated whether such breathing-action coupling is limited to voluntary motor action or whether it is also present for mental actions not involving any overt bodily movement. To answer this question, we recorded electroencephalography (EEG), electromyography (EMG), and respiratory signals while participants were conducting a voluntary action paradigm including self-initiated motor execution (ME), motor imagery (MI), and visual imagery (VI) tasks. We observed that the voluntary initiation of ME, MI, and VI are similarly coupled with the respiration phase. In addition, EEG analysis revealed the existence of readiness potential (RP) waveforms in all three tasks (i.e., ME, MI, VI), as well as a coupling between the RP amplitude and the respiratory phase. Our findings show that the voluntary initiation of both imagined and overt action is coupled with respiration, and further suggest that the breathing system is involved in preparatory processes of voluntary action by contributing to the temporal decision of when to initiate the action plan, regardless of whether this culminates in overt movements.

Frequency drift in MR spectroscopy at 3T.

PURPOSE: Heating of gradient coils and passive shim components is a common cause of instability in the B0 field, especially when gradient intensive sequences are used. The aim of the study was to set a benchmark for typical drift encountered during MR spectroscopy (MRS) to assess the need for real-time field-frequency locking on MRI scanners by comparing field drift data from a large number of sites. METHOD: A standardized protocol was developed for 80 participating sites using 99 3T MR scanners from 3 major vendors. Phantom water signals were acquired before and after an EPI sequence. The protocol consisted of: minimal preparatory imaging; a short pre-fMRI PRESS; a ten-minute fMRI acquisition; and a long post-fMRI PRESS acquisition. Both pre- and post-fMRI PRESS were non-water suppressed. Real-time frequency stabilization/adjustment was switched off when appropriate. Sixty scanners repeated the protocol for a second dataset. In addition, a three-hour post-fMRI MRS acquisition was performed at one site to observe change of gradient temperature and drift rate. Spectral analysis was performed using MATLAB. Frequency drift in pre-fMRI PRESS data were compared with the first 5:20 minutes and the full 30:00 minutes of data after fMRI. Median (interquartile range) drifts were measured and showed in violin plot. Paired t-tests were performed to compare frequency drift pre- and post-fMRI. A simulated in vivo spectrum was generated using FID-A to visualize the effect of the observed frequency drifts. The simulated spectrum was convolved with the frequency trace for the most extreme cases. Impacts of frequency drifts on NAA and GABA were also simulated as a function of linear drift. Data from the repeated protocol were compared with the corresponding first dataset using Pearson's and intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC). RESULTS: Of the data collected from 99 scanners, 4 were excluded due to various reasons. Thus, data from 95 scanners were ultimately analyzed. For the first 5:20 min (64 transients), median (interquartile range) drift was 0.44 (1.29) Hz before fMRI and 0.83 (1.29) Hz after. This increased to 3.15 (4.02) Hz for the full 30 min (360 transients) run. Average drift rates were 0.29 Hz/min before fMRI and 0.43 Hz/min after. Paired t-tests indicated that drift increased after fMRI, as expected (p < 0.05). Simulated spectra convolved with the frequency drift showed that the intensity of the NAA singlet was reduced by up to 26%, 44 % and 18% for GE, Philips and Siemens scanners after fMRI, respectively. ICCs indicated good agreement between datasets acquired on separate days. The single site long acquisition showed drift rate was reduced to 0.03 Hz/min approximately three hours after fMRI. DISCUSSION: This study analyzed frequency drift data from 95 3T MRI scanners. Median levels of drift were relatively low (5-min average under 1 Hz), but the most extreme cases suffered from higher levels of drift. The extent of drift varied across scanners which both linear and nonlinear drifts were observed.

Depressive rumination is correlated with brain responses during self-related processing.

BACKGROUND: Rumination, a tendency to focus on negative self-related thoughts, is a central symptom of depression. Studying the self-related aspect of such symptoms is challenging because of the need to distinguish self effects from the emotional content of task stimuli. This study employed an emotionally neutral self-related paradigm to investigate possible altered self-processing in depression and its link to rumination. METHODS: People with major depressive disorder (n = 25) and controls (n = 25) underwent task-based electro-encephalogram recording. We studied late event-related potentials, along with low-frequency oscillatory power. We compared electroencephalogram metrics between groups and correlated them with depressive symptoms and reported rumination. RESULTS: Participants with major depressive disorder displayed a difference in late positive potentials across frontocentral electrodes between self-related and non-self-related conditions. We found no such difference in controls. The magnitude of this difference was positively correlated with depressive symptoms and reported rumination. Participants with major depressive disorder also had elevated theta oscillation power at central electrodes in self-related conditions, a finding that we did not see in controls. LIMITATIONS: Patients with major depressive disorder were medicated at the time of the study. The group studied was primarily female, so the observed effects may have been sex-specific. CONCLUSION: Rumination appears to be linked to altered self-related processing in depression, independent of stimuli-related emotional confounds. This connection between self-related processing and depression may point to a self disorder as a core component of depression.

Intrinsic activity temporal structure reactivity to behavioural state change is correlated with depressive symptoms.

The brain's intrinsic activity plays a fundamental role in its function. In normal conditions this activity is responsive to behavioural context, changing as an individual switches between directed tasks and task-free conditions. A key feature of such changes is the movement of the brain between corresponding critical and sub-critical states, with these dynamics supporting efficient cognitive processing. Breakdowns in processing efficiency can occur, however, in brain disorders such as depression. It was therefore hypothesised that depressive symptoms would be related to reduced intrinsic activity responsiveness to changes in behavioural state. This was tested in a mixed group of major depressive disorder patients (n = 26) and healthy participants (n = 37) by measuring intrinsic EEG activity temporal structure, quantified with detrended fluctuation analysis (DFA), in eyes-closed (EC) and eyes-open task-free states and contrasting between the conditions. The degree to which DFA values changed between the states was found to correlate negatively with depressive symptoms. DFA values did not differ between states in those with higher symptom levels, meaning that the brain remained in a less flexible sub-critical condition. This sub-critical condition in the EC state was further found to correlate with levels of maladaptive rumination. This may reflect a general cognitive inflexibility resulting from a lack in neural activity reactivity that may predispose people to overly engage in self-directed attention. These results provide an initial link between intrinsic activity reactivity and psychological features found in psychiatric disorders.

Comparison of Multivendor Single-Voxel MR Spectroscopy Data Acquired in Healthy Brain at 26 Sites.

Background The hardware and software differences between MR vendors and individual sites influence the quantification of MR spectroscopy data. An analysis of a large data set may help to better understand sources of the total variance in quantified metabolite levels. Purpose To compare multisite quantitative brain MR spectroscopy data acquired in healthy participants at 26 sites by using the vendor-supplied single-voxel point-resolved spectroscopy (PRESS) sequence. Materials and Methods An MR spectroscopy protocol to acquire short-echo-time PRESS data from the midparietal region of the brain was disseminated to 26 research sites operating 3.0-T MR scanners from three different vendors. In this prospective study, healthy participants were scanned between July 2016 and December 2017. Data were analyzed by using software with simulated basis sets customized for each vendor implementation. The proportion of total variance attributed to vendor-, site-, and participant-related effects was estimated by using a linear mixed-effects model. P values were derived through parametric bootstrapping of the linear mixed-effects models (denoted Pboot). Results In total, 296 participants (mean age, 26 years ± 4.6; 155 women and 141 men) were scanned. Good-quality data were recorded from all sites, as evidenced by a consistent linewidth of N-acetylaspartate (range, 4.4-5.0 Hz), signal-to-noise ratio (range, 174-289), and low Cramér-Rao lower bounds (≤5%) for all of the major metabolites. Among the major metabolites, no vendor effects were found for levels of myo-inositol (Pboot > .90), N-acetylaspartate and N-acetylaspartylglutamate (Pboot = .13), or glutamate and glutamine (Pboot = .11). Among the smaller resonances, no vendor effects were found for ascorbate (Pboot = .08), aspartate (Pboot > .90), glutathione (Pboot > .90), or lactate (Pboot = .28). Conclusion Multisite multivendor single-voxel MR spectroscopy studies performed at 3.0 T can yield results that are coherent across vendors, provided that vendor differences in pulse sequence implementation are accounted for in data analysis. However, the site-related effects on variability were more profound and suggest the need for further standardization of spectroscopic protocols. © RSNA, 2020 Online supplemental material is available for this article.

Big GABA II: Water-referenced edited MR spectroscopy at 25 research sites.

Accurate and reliable quantification of brain metabolites measured in vivo using 1H magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) is a topic of continued interest. Aside from differences in the basic approach to quantification, the quantification of metabolite data acquired at different sites and on different platforms poses an additional methodological challenge. In this study, spectrally edited γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) MRS data were analyzed and GABA levels were quantified relative to an internal tissue water reference. Data from 284 volunteers scanned across 25 research sites were collected using GABA+ (GABA + co-edited macromolecules (MM)) and MM-suppressed GABA editing. The unsuppressed water signal from the volume of interest was acquired for concentration referencing. Whole-brain T1-weighted structural images were acquired and segmented to determine gray matter, white matter and cerebrospinal fluid voxel tissue fractions. Water-referenced GABA measurements were fully corrected for tissue-dependent signal relaxation and water visibility effects. The cohort-wide coefficient of variation was 17% for the GABA + data and 29% for the MM-suppressed GABA data. The mean within-site coefficient of variation was 10% for the GABA + data and 19% for the MM-suppressed GABA data. Vendor differences contributed 53% to the total variance in the GABA + data, while the remaining variance was attributed to site- (11%) and participant-level (36%) effects. For the MM-suppressed data, 54% of the variance was attributed to site differences, while the remaining 46% was attributed to participant differences. Results from an exploratory analysis suggested that the vendor differences were related to the unsuppressed water signal acquisition. Discounting the observed vendor-specific effects, water-referenced GABA measurements exhibit similar levels of variance to creatine-referenced GABA measurements. It is concluded that quantification using internal tissue water referencing is a viable and reliable method for the quantification of in vivo GABA levels.

Investigating GABA concentrations measured with macromolecule suppressed and unsuppressed MEGA-PRESS MR spectroscopy and their relationship with BOLD responses in the occipital cortex.

BACKGROUND: A combination of magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) and functional (f)MRI is a promising method for studying brain activity. Negative results have, however, produced uncertainty as to the validity of the approach. Using a MEGA-PRESS sequence adapted to suppress the macromolecule signal (GABA-) has been suggested as a key methodological improvement, but there is some doubt as to the relationship between such estimates and those from the standard sequence (GABA+), making interpretation difficult. PURPOSE: To investigate the relationship between GABA+ and GABA- estimates from the posterior cingulate and occipital cortices. The second aim was to test for a correlation between occipital GABA and blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) responses in the visual cortex to establish which of the two MEGA-PRESS sequences was more related to the functional responses. STUDY TYPE: Prospective. SUBJECTS: Thirty-one healthy participants. FIELD STRENGTH/SEQUENCE: 3T/single-voxel 1 H-MRS and gradient-echo echo planar imaging (EPI). ASSESSMENT: GABA estimates were made using the Gannet toolbox. fMRI data were analyzed with FSL and Python scripts. STATISTICAL TEST: Relationships between different variables were tested with Pearson's correlation. RESULTS: GABA+ and GABA- concentrations were found to be correlated in both regions (r = 0.52, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.35 0.66, pFDR = 0.002). No relationship was found between either the GABA+ or the GABA- concentrations and the amplitude of the BOLD response in the occipital cortex (GABA+, r = -0.14, pFDR > 0.1; GABA-, r = -0.29, pFDR >0.1). However, adding these results to those of prior studies in a meta-analysis of correlation coefficients did provide overall support for a negative correlation between GABA and BOLD response amplitudes (r = -0.39, 95% CI = -0.15-0.64). DATA CONCLUSION: The current findings highlight potential methodological issues that continue to interfere with relating MRS GABA estimates with fMRI responses but, taken in sum, provide support for this general approach. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 1 Technical Efficacy: Stage 1 J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 2019;50:1285-1294.

Contrasting variability patterns in the default mode and sensorimotor networks balance in bipolar depression and mania.

Depressive and manic phases in bipolar disorder show opposite constellations of affective, cognitive, and psychomotor symptoms. At a neural level, these may be related to topographical disbalance between large-scale networks, such as the default mode network (DMN) and sensorimotor network (SMN). We investigated topographical patterns of variability in the resting-state signal-measured by fractional SD (fSD) of the BOLD signal-of the DMN and SMN (and other networks) in two frequency bands (Slow5 and Slow4) with their ratio and clinical correlations in depressed (n = 20), manic (n = 20), euthymic (n = 20) patients, and healthy controls (n = 40). After controlling for global signal changes, the topographical balance between the DMN and SMN, specifically in the lowest frequency band, as calculated by the Slow5 fSD DMN/SMN ratio, was significantly increased in depression, whereas the same ratio was significantly decreased in mania. Additionally, Slow5 variability was increased in the DMN and decreased in the SMN in depressed patients, whereas the opposite topographical pattern was observed in mania. Finally, the Slow5 fSD DMN/SMN ratio correlated positively with clinical scores of depressive symptoms and negatively with those of mania. Results were replicated in a smaller independent bipolar disorder sample. We demonstrated topographical abnormalities in frequency-specific resting-state variability in the balance between DMN and SMN with opposing patterns in depression and mania. The Slow5 DMN/SMN ratio was tilted toward the DMN in depression but was shifted toward the SMN in mania. The Slow5 fSD DMN/SMN pattern could constitute a state-biomarker in diagnosis and therapy.

Is There a Nonadditive Interaction Between Spontaneous and Evoked Activity? Phase-Dependence and Its Relation to the Temporal Structure of Scale-Free Brain Activity.

The aim of our study was to use functional magnetic resonance imaging to investigate how spontaneous activity interacts with evoked activity, as well as how the temporal structure of spontaneous activity, that is, long-range temporal correlations, relate to this interaction. Using an extremely sparse event-related design (intertrial intervals: 52-60 s), a novel blood oxygen level-dependent signal correction approach (accounting for spontaneous fluctuations using pseudotrials) and phase analysis, we provided direct evidence for a nonadditive interaction between spontaneous and evoked activity. We demonstrated the discrepancy between the present and previous observations on why a linear superposition between spontaneous and evoked activity can be seen by using co-occurring signals from homologous brain regions. Importantly, we further demonstrated that the nonadditive interaction can be characterized by phase-dependent effects of spontaneous activity, which is closely related to the degree of long-range temporal correlations in spontaneous activity as indexed by both power-law exponent and phase-amplitude coupling. Our findings not only contribute to the understanding of spontaneous brain activity and its scale-free properties, but also bear important implications for our understanding of neural activity in general.

Big GABA: Edited MR spectroscopy at 24 research sites.

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) is the only biomedical imaging method that can noninvasively detect endogenous signals from the neurotransmitter γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the human brain. Its increasing popularity has been aided by improvements in scanner hardware and acquisition methodology, as well as by broader access to pulse sequences that can selectively detect GABA, in particular J-difference spectral editing sequences. Nevertheless, implementations of GABA-edited MRS remain diverse across research sites, making comparisons between studies challenging. This large-scale multi-vendor, multi-site study seeks to better understand the factors that impact measurement outcomes of GABA-edited MRS. An international consortium of 24 research sites was formed. Data from 272 healthy adults were acquired on scanners from the three major MRI vendors and analyzed using the Gannet processing pipeline. MRS data were acquired in the medial parietal lobe with standard GABA+ and macromolecule- (MM-) suppressed GABA editing. The coefficient of variation across the entire cohort was 12% for GABA+ measurements and 28% for MM-suppressed GABA measurements. A multilevel analysis revealed that most of the variance (72%) in the GABA+ data was accounted for by differences between participants within-site, while site-level differences accounted for comparatively more variance (20%) than vendor-level differences (8%). For MM-suppressed GABA data, the variance was distributed equally between site- (50%) and participant-level (50%) differences. The findings show that GABA+ measurements exhibit strong agreement when implemented with a standard protocol. There is, however, increased variability for MM-suppressed GABA measurements that is attributed in part to differences in site-to-site data acquisition. This study's protocol establishes a framework for future methodological standardization of GABA-edited MRS, while the results provide valuable benchmarks for the MRS community.

How are different neural networks related to consciousness?

OBJECTIVE: We aimed to investigate the roles of different resting-state networks in predicting both the actual level of consciousness and its recovery in brain injury patients. METHODS: We investigated resting-state functional connectivity within different networks in patients with varying levels of consciousness: unresponsive wakefulness syndrome (UWS; n = 56), minimally conscious state (MCS; n = 29), and patients with brain lesions but full consciousness (BL; n = 48). Considering the actual level of consciousness, we compared the strength of network connectivity among the patient groups. We then checked the presence of connections between specific regions in individual patients and calculated the frequency of this in the different patient groups. Considering the recovery of consciousness, we split the UWS group into 2 subgroups according to recovery: those who emerged from UWS (UWS-E) and those who remained in UWS (UWS-R). The above analyses were repeated on these 2 subgroups. RESULTS: Functional connectivity strength in salience network (SN), especially connectivity between the supragenual anterior cingulate cortex (SACC) and left anterior insula (LAI), was reduced in the unconscious state (UWS) compared to the conscious state (MCS and BL). Moreover, at the individual level, SACC-LAI connectivity was more present in MCS than in UWS. Default-mode network (DMN) connectivity strength, especially between the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) and left lateral parietal cortex (LLPC), was reduced in UWS-R compared with UWS-E. Furthermore, PCC-LLPC connectivity was more present in UWS-E than in UWS-R. INTERPRETATION: Our findings show that SN (SACC-LAI) connectivity correlates with behavioral signs of consciousness, whereas DMN (PCC-LLPC) connectivity instead predicts recovery of consciousness.

Increase in glutamate/glutamine concentration in the medial prefrontal cortex during mental imagery: A combined functional mrs and fMRI study.

Recent functional magnetic resonance spectroscopy (fMRS) studies have shown changes in glutamate/glutamine (Glx) concentrations between resting-state and active-task conditions. However, the types of task used have been limited to sensory paradigms, and the regions from which Glx concentrations have been measured limited to sensory ones. This leaves open the question as to whether the same effect can be seen in higher-order brain regions during cognitive tasks. Cortical midline structures, especially the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC), have been suggested to be involved in various such cognitive tasks. We, therefore set out to use fMRS to investigate the dynamics of Glx concentrations in the MPFC between resting-state and mental imagery task conditions. The auditory cortex was used as a control region. In addition, functional magnetic resonance imaging was used to explore task-related neural activity changes. The mental imagery task consisted of imagining swimming and was applied to a large sample of healthy participants (n = 46). The participants were all competitive swimmers, ensuring proficiency in mental-swimming. Glx concentrations in the MPFC increased during the imagery task, as compared to resting-state periods preceding and following the task. These increases mirror BOLD activity changes in the same region during the task. No changes in either Glx concentrations or BOLD activity were seen in the auditory cortex. These findings contribute to our understanding of the biochemical basis of generating or manipulating mental representations and the MPFC's role in this.

GABAA receptor deficits predict recovery in patients with disorders of consciousness: A preliminary multimodal [(11) C]Flumazenil PET and fMRI study.

OBJECTIVES: Disorders of consciousness (DoC)-that is, unresponsive wakefulness syndrome/vegetative state and minimally conscious state-are debilitating conditions for which no reliable markers of consciousness recovery have yet been identified. Evidence points to the GABAergic system being altered in DoC, making it a potential target as such a marker. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: In our preliminary study, we used [(11) C]Flumazenil positron emission tomography to establish global GABAA receptor binding potential values and the local-to-global (LTG) ratio of these for specific regions. These values were then compared between DoC patients and healthy controls. In addition, they were correlated with behavioral improvements for the patients between the time of scanning and 3 months later. Functional magnetic resonance imaging resting-state functional connectivity was also calculated and the same comparisons made. PRINCIPAL OBSERVATIONS: lobal GABAA receptor binding was reduced in DoC, as was the LTG ratio in specifically the supragenual anterior cingulate. Both of these measures correlated with behavioral improvement after 3 months. In contrast to these measures of GABAA receptor binding, functional connectivity did not correlate with behavioral improvement. CONCLUSIONS: Our preliminary findings point toward GABAA receptor binding being a marker of consciousness recovery in DoC.

Negative childhood experiences alter a prefrontal-insular-motor cortical network in healthy adults: A preliminary multimodal rsfMRI-fMRI-MRS-dMRI study.

Research in humans and animals has shown that negative childhood experiences (NCE) can have long-term effects on the structure and function of the brain. Alterations have been noted in grey and white matter, in the brain's resting state, on the glutamatergic system, and on neural and behavioural responses to aversive stimuli. These effects can be linked to psychiatric disorder such as depression and anxiety disorders that are influenced by excessive exposure to early life stressors. The aim of the current study was to investigate the effect of NCEs on these systems. Resting state functional MRI (rsfMRI), aversion task fMRI, glutamate magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), and diffusion magnetic resonance imaging (dMRI) were combined with the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) in healthy subjects to examine the impact of NCEs on the brain. Low CTQ scores, a measure of NCEs, were related to higher resting state glutamate levels and higher resting state entropy in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). CTQ scores, mPFC glutamate and entropy, correlated with neural BOLD responses to the anticipation of aversive stimuli in regions throughout the aversion-related network, with strong correlations between all measures in the motor cortex and left insula. Structural connectivity strength, measured using mean fractional anisotropy, between the mPFC and left insula correlated to aversion-related signal changes in the motor cortex. These findings highlight the impact of NCEs on multiple inter-related brain systems. In particular, they highlight the role of a prefrontal-insular-motor cortical network in the processing and responsivity to aversive stimuli and its potential adaptability by NCEs.

GABA in the insula - a predictor of the neural response to interoceptive awareness.

The insula has been identified as a key region involved in interoceptive awareness. Whilst imaging studies have investigated the neural activation patterns in this region involved in intero- and exteroceptive awareness, the underlying biochemical mechanisms still remain unclear. In order to investigate these, a well-established fMRI task targeting interoceptive awareness (heartbeat counting) and exteroceptive awareness (tone counting) was combined with magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS). Controlling for physiological noise, neural activity in the insula during intero- and exteroceptive awareness was confirmed in an independent data sample using the same fMRI design. Focussing on MRS values from the left insula and combining them with neural activity during intero- and exteroceptive awareness in the same healthy individuals, we demonstrated that GABA concentration in a region highly involved in interoceptive processing is correlated with neural responses to interoceptive stimuli, as opposed to exteroceptive stimuli. In addition, both GABA and interoceptive signal changes in the insula predicted the degree of depressed affect, as measured by the Beck Hopelessness Scale. On the one hand, the association between GABA concentration and neural activity during interoceptive awareness provides novel insight into the biochemical underpinnings of insula function and interoception. On the other, through the additional association of both GABA and neural activity during interoception with depressed affect, these data also bear potentially important implications for psychiatric disorders like depression and anxiety, where GABAergic deficits, altered insula function and abnormal affect coincide.

Neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer's disease are related to functional connectivity alterations in the salience network.

Neuropsychiatric syndromes are highly prevalent in Alzheimer's disease (AD), but their neurobiology is not completely understood. New methods in functional magnetic resonance imaging, such as intrinsic functional connectivity or "resting-state" analysis, may help to clarify this issue. Using such approaches, alterations in the default-mode and salience networks (SNs) have been described in Alzheimer's, although their relationship with specific symptoms remains unclear. We therefore carried out resting-state functional connectivity analysis with 20 patients with mild to moderate AD, and correlated their scores on neuropsychiatric inventory syndromes (apathy, hyperactivity, affective syndrome, and psychosis) with maps of connectivity in the default mode network and SN. In addition, we compared network connectivity in these patients with that in 17 healthy elderly control subjects. All analyses were controlled for gray matter density and other potential confounds. Alzheimer's patients showed increased functional connectivity within the SN compared with controls (right anterior cingulate cortex and left medial frontal gyrus), along with reduced functional connectivity in the default-mode network (bilateral precuneus). A correlation between increased connectivity in anterior cingulate cortex and right insula areas of the SN and hyperactivity syndrome (agitation, irritability, aberrant motor behavior, euphoria, and disinhibition) was found. These findings demonstrate an association between specific network changes in AD and particular neuropsychiatric symptom types. This underlines the potential clinical significance of resting state alterations in future diagnosis and therapy.

External awareness and GABA--a multimodal imaging study combining fMRI and [18F]flumazenil-PET.

Awareness is an essential feature of the human mind that can be directed internally, that is, toward our self, or externally, that is, toward the environment. The combination of internal and external information is crucial to constitute our sense of self. Although the underlying neuronal networks, the so-called intrinsic and extrinsic systems, have been well-defined, the associated biochemical mechanisms still remain unclear. We used a well-established functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) paradigm for internal (heartbeat counting) and external (tone counting) awareness and combined this technique with [(18)F]FMZ-PET imaging in the same healthy subjects. Focusing on cortical midline regions, the results showed that both stimuli types induce negative BOLD responses in the mPFC and the precuneus. Carefully controlling for structured noise in fMRI data, these results were also confirmed in an independent data sample using the same paradigm. Moreover, the degree of the GABAA receptor binding potential within these regions was correlated with the neuronal activity changes associated with external, rather than internal awareness when compared to fixation. These data support evidence that the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA is an influencing factor in the differential processing of internally and externally guided awareness. This in turn has implications for our understanding of the biochemical mechanisms underlying awareness in general and its potential impact on psychiatric disorders.

Geographical and economic influences on neuroimaging modality choice.

The current neuroimaging literature is unrepresentative of the world's population due to bias towards particular types of people living in a subset of geographical locations. This is true of both the people running the research and those participating in it. These biases mean we may be missing insights into how the brain works. As neuroimaging research expands out to more of the world, the reality of global economic disparities becomes salient. With economic conditions having an effect on many background conditions for research, we can ask whether they also influence the neuroimaging research being done. To investigate this, the number of neuroimaging publications originating from a country was used as a proxy for the type of research being done there in terms of imaging modalities employed. This was then related to local economic conditions, as represented by national gross domestic product and research and development spending. National financial metrics were positively associated with neuroimaging output. The imaging modalities used were also found to be associated with local economic conditions, with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) research positively and electroencephalography (EEG) negatively associated with national research spending. These results suggest that economic conditions may be relevant when planning how neuroimaging research can be expanded globally.

InSpectro-Gadget: A Tool for Estimating Neurotransmitter and Neuromodulator Receptor Distributions for MRS Voxels.

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) is widely used to estimate concentrations of glutamate and γ -aminobutyric acid (GABA) in specific regions of the living human brain. As cytoarchitectural properties differ across the brain, interpreting these measurements can be assisted by having knowledge of such properties for the MRS region(s) studied. In particular, some knowledge of likely local neurotransmitter receptor patterns can potentially give insights into the mechanistic environment GABA- and glutamatergic neurons are functioning in. This may be of particular utility when comparing two or more regions, given that the receptor populations may differ substantially across them. At the same time, when studying MRS data from multiple participants or timepoints, the homogeneity of the sample becomes relevant, as measurements taken from areas with different cytoarchitecture may be difficult to compare. To provide insights into the likely cytoarchitectural environment of user-defined regions-of-interest, we produced an easy to use tool - InSpectro-Gadget - that interfaces with receptor mRNA expression information from the Allen Human Brain Atlas. This Python tool allows users to input masks and automatically obtain a graphical overview of the receptor population likely to be found within. This includes comparison between multiple masks or participants where relevant. The receptors and receptor subunit genes featured include GABA- and glutamatergic classes, along with a wide range of neuromodulators. The functionality of the tool is explained here and its use is demonstrated through a set of example analyses. The tool is available at https://github.com/lizmcmanus/Inspectro-Gadget .