Management of psychogenic non-epileptic seizures: a multidisciplinary approach.

The International League against Epilepsy (ILAE) proposed a diagnostic scheme for psychogenic non-epileptic seizure (PNES). The debate on ethical aspects of the diagnostic procedures is ongoing, the treatment is not standardized and management might differ according to age group. The objective was to reach an expert and stakeholder consensus on PNES management. A board comprising adult and child neurologists, neuropsychologists, psychiatrists, pharmacologists, experts in forensic medicine and bioethics as well as patients' representatives was formed. The board chose five main topics regarding PNES: diagnosis; ethical issues; psychiatric comorbidities; psychological treatment; and pharmacological treatment. After a systematic review of the literature, the board met in a consensus conference in Catanzaro (Italy). Further consultations using a model of Delphi panel were held. The global level of evidence for all topics was low. Even though most questions were formulated separately for children/adolescents and adults, no major age-related differences emerged. The board established that the approach to PNES diagnosis should comply with ILAE recommendations. Seizure induction was considered ethical, preferring the least invasive techniques. The board recommended looking carefully for mood disturbances, personality disorders and psychic trauma in persons with PNES and considering cognitive-behavioural therapy as a first-line psychological approach and pharmacological treatment to manage comorbid conditions, namely anxiety and depression. Psychogenic non-epileptic seizure management should be multidisciplinary. High-quality long-term studies are needed to standardize PNES management.

Long-term prognosis of epilepsy, prognostic patterns and drug resistance: a population-based study.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Seizures in most people with epilepsy remit but prognostic markers are poorly understood. There is also little information on the long-term outcome of people who fail to achieve seizure control despite the use of two antiepileptic drugs (drug resistance). METHODS: People with a validated diagnosis of epilepsy in whom two antiepileptic drugs had failed were identified from primary care records. All were registered with one of 123 family physicians in an area of northern Italy. Remission (uninterrupted seizure freedom lasting 2 years or longer) and prognostic patterns (early remission, late remission, remission followed by relapse, no remission) were determined. RESULTS: In all, 747 individuals (381 men), aged 11 months to 94 years, were followed for 11 045.5 person-years. 428 (59%) were seizure-free. The probability of achieving 2-year remission was 18% at treatment start, 34% at 2 years, 45% at 5, 52% at 10 and 67% at 20 years (terminal remission, 60%). Epilepsy syndrome and drug resistance were the only independent predictors of 2- and 5-year remission. Early remission was seen in 101 people (19%), late remission in 175 (33%), remission followed by relapse in 85 (16%) and no remission in 166 (32%). Treatment response was the only variable associated with differing prognostic patterns. CONCLUSION: The long-term prognosis of epilepsy is favourable in most cases. Early seizure remission is not invariably followed by terminal remission and seizure outcome varies according to well-defined patterns. Prolonged seizure remission and prognostic patterns can be predicted by broad syndromic categories and the failure of two antiepileptic drugs.

Results of surgery for extratemporal partial epilepsy that began in childhood.

Thirty-five consecutive patients who underwent surgery for intractable extratemporal seizures originating in childhood are described. Candidates for surgery were selected on the basis of clinical criteria, neurodiagnostic imaging, and an electroencephalographic investigation that included the use of sphenoidal electrodes and long-term monitoring. Invasive preoperative monitoring was not used. Our results, with respect to the control of seizures and behavioral improvement, are comparable with series in which data from invasive recordings were used in the selection process. Sixty-three percent of the 35 patients (76.5% of those operated on after the introduction of long-term electroencephalographic monitoring) became either seizure free or experienced a reduction in their frequency of seizures by at least 75%. The favorable outcome in this group of patients strengthens the argument for early operation in children with intractable epilepsy, even when the seizure focus is outside the temporal lobe.

Failure of standard magnetic resonance imaging in patients with refractory temporal lobe epilepsy.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the sensitivity of standard magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans done outside an epilepsy center with that of special protocol MRI scans done at an epilepsy center in delineating relevant lesions of the temporal lobe. SUBJECTS: Eighty-four consecutive patients who had temporal lobe resections for refractory temporal lobe epilepsy between January 1, 1993, and February 1, 1996. DESIGN: The reports of findings on standard MRI scans done outside an epilepsy center were compared with the findings of special protocol MRI scans done with 1.5-mm T1-weighted coronal and 3-mm T2-weighted coronal images (no gaps) on a 1.5-T system. Both sets of MRI findings were compared with findings on histologic examination of the resected tissue. RESULTS: Of the 84 patients, 51 had standard MRI scans done outside an epilepsy center; of these, there were 34 patients with normal results, 10 with tumors, 2 with vascular malformations, 2 with hippocampal atrophy, 2 with unclassified abnormalities, and 1 with cortical malformation. In 32 of the 34 patients with normal results of an MRI scan done outside an epilepsy center, abnormalities were found on our special protocol MRI scans. These included hippocampal atrophy in 27 patients, tumors in 2, and cortical malformations in 1. Additionally, all 17 of the abnormalities detected on the standard MRI scans done outside the epilepsy center were identified on our special protocol MRI scans. Important pathologic abnormalities of the temporal lobe were identified in 16 (35%) of the 46 patients with standard MRI scans done outside an epilepsy center and in 44 (96%) with our special protocol MRI scans. In the 29 patients for whom adequate surgical specimens were available and results of standard MRI scans were normal, our special protocol MRI scans showed the abnormality in 27 (93%). CONCLUSIONS: Conventional neuroimaging studies are inadequate for diagnosing hippocampal sclerosis although they fairly readily detect low-grade tumors and vascular malformations. Magnetic resonance imaging scans for the evaluation of patients with refractory temporal lobe epilepsy should be done with a special temporal lobe protocol and read by physicians experienced with the findings in hippocampal sclerosis. Health care dollars are wasted on neuroimaging done for refractory temporal lobe epilepsy outside epilepsy centers.

Cerebral hemicorticectomy for epilepsy.

Hemicorticectomy resulted in total or near-total control of seizures in 10 of 11 children with chronic epilepsy. During a median follow-up period of 5.5 years, there have been no deaths or delayed complications. The surgical outcome after hemicorticectomy compares favorably with that of more extensive surgical procedures, yet is associated with significantly less risk. The technique for hemicorticectomy is described and illustrated.

Epilepsy surgery in children.

Neurosurgical procedures of established value in the treatment of the medically intractable epilepsies include temporal lobectomy, extratemporal cortical excision, hemispherectomy, and corpus callosotomy. The clinical decision to consider surgery in children with epilepsy requires an understanding of the natural history of pediatric seizures, the constraints of the presurgical evaluation, and the relationship between surgical outcome and tissue pathology. This article presents an overview of the indications, risks, and benefits of epilepsy surgery in the pediatric population.

Virological characteristics of hepatitis C virus infection in chronic hemodialysis patients: a cross-sectional study.

Detection of hepatitis C virus viremia (HCV RNA) in serum of hemodialysis (HD) patients is crucial for documenting ongoing infection because the clinical and epidemiological importance of anti-HCV positivity is not clear. HCV viremia was studied in 104 HD patients by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT PCR) using primers localized in the 5' non-coding region of the viral genome. We used two different methods to detect HCV RNA: a direct PCR amplification of HCV RNA from human serum, and a standard RT PCR procedure (requiring the RNA extraction step). There were 50 (48%) anti-HCV positive patients in this population. Twenty-two (21.1%) out of 104 patients showed HCV RNA in serum by standard RT PCR technique: they belonged to the anti-HCV positive patient group, whereas all anti-HCV negative patients were HCV RNA negative. Prevalence of HCV RNA was more than doubled when standard RT PCR was used compared to direct RT PCR protocol. There was a good association between serum HCV RNA and circulating anti-HCV antibodies, tested by second-generation ELISA and RIBA assays. HCV viremia was not associated with either the presence or the absence of a particular RIBA antibody specificity. AST and ALT levels had no predictive value for HCV viremia, because they were repeatedly normal in the majority of viremic patients (16/22: 73%).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Temporal lobectomy for complex partial seizures that began in childhood.

Forty-six consecutive patients who underwent surgery for intractable temporal lobe seizures originating in childhood are reported; invasive preoperative monitoring (e.g., depth electrodes and subdural arrays) was not used in the selection process. Our results, with respect to the control of seizures and improvement in behavior, are comparable to those of series in which invasive monitoring was used in the selection process. Eighty-five percent of the 46 patients (96% of the 28 operated after the introduction of long-term electroencephalographic monitoring) became either seizure free or experienced near total control of their seizures. Our results indicate that many patients can be selected successfully for temporal resection without exposure to the risk and expense of invasive presurgical procedures. A long duration of epilepsy prior to surgery in patients with neoplasia portended a less satisfactory outcome. Our results strengthen the argument for early operation in children with intractable epilepsy.

Burnout and health status in Italian air traffic controllers.

This study investigated burnout in air traffic controllers (ATC's). There were 109 Italian ATC's who filled out the Rome Burnout Inventory, a new tool for burnout assessment, during breaks in the working environment. The questionnaire assessed: 1) emotional-mental exhaustion (EME); 2) physical exhaustion (PE); 3) social support by components of the social network; 4) work- and nonwork-related stressors; 5) self-reported psychosomatic and psychiatric disorders. Our data show that the burnout syndrome is closely and positively related to age, years spent in air traffic control, professional dissatisfaction, and to work stressors, but not to nonwork stressors. In our sample, burnout was negatively correlated with social support provided by friends and family. The PE construct seemed to be unreliable in detecting physical burnout in Italian ATC's. Using analysis of variance, subjects with self-reported psychosomatic disorders did not show higher levels of EME scores. Further, EME was positively correlated with self-perceived psychological distress (anxiety, depression and impulse discontrol), but not with physician-rated psychopathology, as revealed by psychoactive drug intake. We suggest that burnout is a construct independent from clinical anxiety or depression.

Autologous fat grafting for scleroderma-induced digital ulcers. An effective technique in patients with systemic sclerosis.

BACKGROUND: Digital ulcers (DUs) occur in up to 50% of patients with Systemic Sclerosis (SSc). DUs are painful, recurring and lead to functional disability. Management of DUs includes pharmacologic and local therapy, the healing process is slow and the ulcer can become infected or evolve to gangrene. Autologous fat grafting (AFG) is a technique used to promote tissues repair. We used AFG to treat DUs refractory to conventional treatment to enhance healing process. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We treated 9 SSc patients for a total of 15 ulcers. All 9 patients were treated with iv Iloprost. The purified fat tissue was injected at the border of larger ulcers or at the finger base of smaller DUs. The AFG was performed from 2 to 8 months since the ulcer onset. RESULTS: Complete healing occured in 10 DUs and size reduction ≥50% in 2, within 8-12 weeks. In all but 2 patients the pain improved allowing a reduction of analgesics. In the majority of the cases AFG was able to hasten ulcer healing and to reduce pain and the need of pharmacological therapy. The lack of efficacy on healing and pain reduction was observed when the ulcers were long-lasting, located on legs and with concurrent atherosclerotic macroangiopathy. CONCLUSIONS: Surgical resective treatment for finger ulcers in patients affected by SSc is fraught with morbidity and long prolonged recovery. This study introduces a novel minimally invasive approach. The procedure is safe and effective, with short recovery time and local deficient vascularization improvement.

Electroencephalographic correlates of near-drowning encephalopathy in children.

Findings of the serial EEGs of 9 children involved in fresh water near-drowning were correlated with neurological signs and final outcome. Our observations revealed that in young near-drowning victims there is a distinct evolution of the EEG which differs considerably from any stereotyped classification outlined for other types of encephalopathies. In patients with a poor clinical outcome, the early phase of near-drowning encephalopathy was characterized electrically by diffuse delta waves, often with alpha or beta frequencies superimposed (alpha-delta and beta-delta pattern). Additional features included poor sleep-waking differentiation and abnormal reactivity. Repetitive focal or multifocal biphasic or triphasic wave forms occurred exclusively in the group with a fatal outcome. The intermediate phase of the encephalopathy was signaled by an attenuation of all fast frequencies (alpha and beta rhythms), enhancement of delta activity, and disappearance of sleep parameters (if present in the earlier recordings). Finally, a modified burst suppression pattern occurred as a late EEG evolution in an encephalopathy of complex and protracted nature.

The coordinated psychosocial and neurologic care of children with seizures and their families.

SUMMARY: As the medical and surgical management of epilepsy continues to advance, issues associated with the quality of life of patients and their families can be addressed. Whenever associated with other handicaps, such as learning disabilities, attentional or behavioral disorders, and problems in psychological adjustment, dual-diagnosis issues must be identified. To provide comprehensive care for children with epilepsy, a team approach to psychosocial assessment and treatment must be provided and coordinated with neurologic care. When the age-related needs in the life stage of the individual and family are identified, the best possible adaptation of the patient and his or her family can be supported.

Factors distinguishing families of patients with psychogenic seizures from families of patients with epilepsy.

PURPOSE: Psychogenic seizures (PS) (emotionally based nonelectrical seizures) have been explained by psychodynamics and trauma. However, the family health literature suggests that somatization, of which psychogenic seizures are a form, may run in families and be determined by family patterns of response to distress. This study compared families of patients with PS and those of patients with epilepsy on variables of distress (anxiety and depression) and somatization. METHODS: Eighteen patients (9 with PS and 9 with epilepsy) matched for age and education, and their families answered the Health Status Questionnaire (HSQ), the Weinberger Adjustment Inventory (WAI), the Family Emotional Involvement and Criticism Scale (FEICS), Barsky's Somatization Symptom Inventory (SS), and the Dissociation Experience Scale (DES). Family members' scores were averaged to obtain "family scores." RESULTS: Patients with PS and those with epilepsy did not differ in any of the measures. However, families of patients with PS reported more health problems, distress, and criticism than did families of patients with epilepsy (p < 0.05). Families of patients with PS had increased criticism and somatic problem scores comparable to those of both types of patients. CONCLUSIONS: Although epilepsy causes patients physical and emotional problems, their families are relatively healthy. In contrast, families of patients with PS are more troubled and may unwittingly contribute to PS through family distress, criticism, and tendencies to somatize.