Transcultural Adaptation and Validity Evidence of the Child Forensic Attitude Scale (CFAS) - Brazilian Version.

Child sexual abuse is a serious problem in Brazil and requires actions taken together by Justice, Security, Health and Social Welfare to effectively protect and guarantee victims' rights. Professionals working in these fields have difficulty in evaluating cases, owing to limitations of the Brazilian Welfare Network and lack of specialized training. Such difficulty may cause professionals to carry out poorly substantiated assessments and fail to properly protect victims. Instruments to measure professionals' attitudes in the assessment of situations of sexual violence are scarce. As a result, this study aimed to adapt and evaluate validity evidence of the Child Forensic Attitude Scale (CFAS) in the Brazilian context. A total of 177 professionals (86.4% females), with a mean age of 37.6 years (SD = 10.1 years) participated in the survey. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis showed that in the Brazilian context, the scale structure presents three first-order oblique factors, namely "Fear of Not Identifying Abuse" (F-Under), "Fear of Overcalling Abuse" (F-Over) and "Skepticism" (Skep). The internal consistency of the three dimensions was satisfactory (F-Under, α = 0.66, F-Over, α = 0.80, and Skep, α = 0.92). Evidence has shown that the CFAS can be used to evaluate health professionals' attitudes when assessing cases of sexual violence against children and adolescents in Brazil. This instrument can support the assessment of health professionals' attitudes, and it emphasizes the importance of qualifying Brazilian professionals in the Welfare Network services by providing training opportunities regarding work with victims of sexual abuse.

Professionals' Attitude Toward Reporting Child Sexual Abuse in Saudi Arabia.

Child sexual abuse (CSA) requires specialized knowledge and training that includes forensic interview skills. The aim of this study was to determine variations in professionals' attitudes toward CSA by measuring three aspects of forensic attitudes (sensitivity, specificity, and skepticism) and evaluating disagreements concerning the assessment of CSA cases in Saudi Arabia. A cross-sectional, web-based study, in which the Child Forensic Attitude Scale was used to measure professionals' attitudes, was conducted. Professionals who dealt with suspected cases of CSA as part of their jobs or were in professions that necessitated involvement with such cases, were selected as participants. Of 327 participants, 53% were aged ≤40 years, and 54% were men. In addition, 24% were doctors/nurses, 20% were therapists/psychiatrists, 24% were social workers, 17% were educators, 9% were law enforcement professionals, and 5% were medical examiners. Attitude subscale scores differed significantly according to participants' sex, specialty, and training. Women, healthcare professionals, and those who had participated in more than five training courses were more concerned about the underreporting of abuse (high sensitivity) relative to other professionals. In comparison, men, medical examiners, law enforcement officers, and undertrained professionals tended to underreport suspected sexual abuse cases (high specificity). High specificity in attitudes toward suspected cases of CSA could affect professionals' judgment and contribute to low reporting rates. Certain strategies, including increasing self-awareness of personal bias, specific CSA recognition courses, and team approaches to case assessment and management, should be implemented to control the influence of subjective factors.

Strategic Materials in the Automobile: A Comprehensive Assessment of Strategic and Minor Metals Use in Passenger Cars and Light Trucks.

A comprehensive component-level assessment of several strategic and minor metals (SaMMs), including copper, manganese, magnesium, nickel, tin, niobium, light rare earth elements (LREEs; lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, and samarium), cobalt, silver, tungsten, heavy rare earth elements (yttrium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, and lutetium), and gold, use in the 2013 model year Ford Fiesta, Focus, Fusion, and F-150 is presented. Representative material contents in cars and light-duty trucks are estimated using comprehensive, component-level data reported by suppliers. Statistical methods are used to accommodate possible errors within the database and provide estimate bounds. Results indicate that there is a high degree of variability in SaMM use and that SaMMs are concentrated in electrical, drivetrain, and suspension subsystems. Results suggest that trucks contain greater amounts of aluminum, nickel, niobium, and silver and significantly greater amounts of magnesium, manganese, gold, and LREEs. We find tin and tungsten use in automobiles to be 3-5 times higher than reported by previous studies which have focused on automotive electronics. Automotive use of strategic and minor metals is substantial, with 2013 vehicle production in the United States, Canada, EU15, and Japan alone accounting for approximately 20% of global production of Mg and Ta and approximately 5% of Al, Cu, and Sn. The data and analysis provide researchers, recyclers, and decision-makers additional insight into the vehicle content of strategic and minor metals of current interest.

Assessing Economic Modulation of Future Critical Materials Use: The Case of Automotive-Related Platinum Group Metals.

Platinum-group metals (PGMs) are technological and economic enablers of many industrial processes. This important role, coupled with their limited geographic availability, has led to PGMs being labeled as "critical materials". Studies of future PGM flows have focused on trends within material flows or macroeconomic indicators. We complement the previous work by introducing a novel technoeconomic model of substitution among PGMs within the automotive sector (the largest user of PGMs) reflecting the rational response of firms to changing prices. The results from the model support previous conclusions that PGM use is likely to grow, in some cases strongly, by 2030 (approximately 45% for Pd and 5% for Pt), driven by the increasing sales of automobiles. The model also indicates that PGM-demand growth will be significantly influenced by the future Pt-to-Pd price ratio, with swings of Pt and Pd demand of as much as 25% if the future price ratio shifts higher or lower even if it stays within the historic range. Fortunately, automotive catalysts are one of the more effectively recycled metals. As such, with proper policy support, recycling can serve to meet some of this growing demand.

Evaluating rare earth element availability: a case with revolutionary demand from clean technologies.

The future availability of rare earth elements (REEs) is of concern due to monopolistic supply conditions, environmentally unsustainable mining practices, and rapid demand growth. We present an evaluation of potential future demand scenarios for REEs with a focus on the issue of comining. Many assumptions were made to simplify the analysis, but the scenarios identify some key variables that could affect future rare earth markets and market behavior. Increased use of wind energy and electric vehicles are key elements of a more sustainable future. However, since present technologies for electric vehicles and wind turbines rely heavily on dysprosium (Dy) and neodymium (Nd), in rare-earth magnets, future adoption of these technologies may result in large and disproportionate increases in the demand for these two elements. For this study, upper and lower bound usage projections for REE in these applications were developed to evaluate the state of future REE supply availability. In the absence of efficient reuse and recycling or the development of technologies which use lower amounts of Dy and Nd, following a path consistent with stabilization of atmospheric CO(2) at 450 ppm may lead to an increase of more than 700% and 2600% for Nd and Dy, respectively, over the next 25 years if the present REE needs in automotive and wind applications are representative of future needs.

Suicidal ideation in adolescence: examining the role of recent adverse experiences.

Although there is a well-known link between adverse experiences and suicidal ideation, there has been little study of the effects of recent adverse experiences on suicidal ideation in teenagers. This study examined the association between recent adverse experiences and suicidal ideation in a sample of 740 at-risk 16-year-old youth in the LONGSCAN studies, as well as potential mediators. 8.9% of the youth reported suicidal ideation. Recent adverse experiences, as a class, were associated with suicidal ideation; both recent physical abuse and recent psychological maltreatment were uniquely associated with suicidal ideation. The links between recent adverse experiences and suicidal ideation were significantly mediated by psychological distress. There were also significant main effect associations between both internalizing behavioral problems and low positive achievement expectations and suicidal ideation. Recent adverse experiences are important in understanding suicidal ideation in high risk youth.

Contested issues in the evaluation of child sexual abuse allegations: why consensus on best practice remains elusive.

This is an introductory article to a special issue of the Journal of Childhood Sexual Abuse that responds to challenges to current forensic evaluation practice found in Kuehnle and Connell's edited volume The Evaluation of Child Sexual Abuse Allegations: A Comprehensive Guide to Assessment and Testimony (2009). This article describes the topics that will be addressed in this issue, summarizes the contents of the Kuehnle and Connell book, and provides a hypothetical case to illustrate potential problems in applying certain perspectives and guidelines offered in the book to actual forensic practice.

Base rates, multiple indicators, and comprehensive forensic evaluations: why sexualized behavior still counts in assessments of child sexual abuse allegations.

Developmentally inappropriate sexual behavior has long been viewed as a possible indicator of child sexual abuse. In recent years, however, the utility of sexualized behavior in forensic assessments of alleged child sexual abuse has been seriously challenged. This article addresses a number of the concerns that have been raised about the diagnostic value of sexualized behavior, including the claim that when population base rates for abuse are properly taken into account, the diagnostic value of sexualized behavior is insignificant. This article also identifies a best practice comprehensive evaluation model with a methodology that is effective in mitigating such concerns.

Reliability of professional judgments in forensic child sexual abuse evaluations: unsettled or unsettling science?

In the absence of photographic or DNA evidence, a credible eyewitness, or perpetrator confession, forensic evaluators in cases of alleged child sexual abuse must rely on psychosocial or "soft" evidence, often requiring substantial professional judgment for case determination. This article offers a three-part rebuttal to Herman's (2009 ) argument that forensic decisions based on psychosocial evidence are fundamentally unreliable and that this conclusion represents settled science. The article also discusses the potentially adverse consequences of Herman's proposed reforms to forensic practice on child protection and prosecution efforts.

Beyond sexual abuse: the impact of other maltreatment experiences on sexualized behaviors.

This study sought to broaden research findings linking maltreatment to sexualized behaviors by investigating whether maltreatment experiences other than sexual abuse predict such behaviors. The sample included 690 children without reported sexual abuse histories who are participants in the LONGSCAN Consortium, a prospective multisite investigation of childhood maltreatment. Child Protective Service reports before age 8 years and caregiver reports on the Child Sexual Behavior Inventory-II at age 8 years were used to examine the relationship between maltreatment timing and type, and sexualized behaviors. Logistic regression analyses suggested that early (< 4) and late (4-8) reports of physical abuse were associated with more sexualized behaviors (odds ratios = 1.9-2.6). The pattern differed by gender, with physical abuse predicting sexual intrusiveness and displaying private parts in boys, and boundary problems in girls. Findings suggest that maltreatment other than sexual abuse, and the developmental periods in which it occurs, may be linked to the development of sexualized behaviors.

Concordance between adolescent reports of childhood abuse and Child Protective Service determinations in an at-risk sample of young adolescents.

This study examines the concordance between adolescent reports of abuse and abuse determinations from Child Protective Service (CPS) agencies. It also compares the utility of adolescent reports of abuse, relative to CPS determinations in predicting adolescent psychological adjustment. The sample included 350 early adolescents, ages 12 to 13 years, who were initially identified prior to age 2 years as being at elevated risk of maltreatment. An Audio-Computer Assisted Self Interview (A-CASI) was used to assess lifetime experiences of physical, sexual, and psychological abuse. The A-CASI interview elicited prevalence rates of abuse 4 to 6 times higher than those found in CPS records. However, 20 of 45 adolescents with CPS determinations of abuse failed to report abuse during the study interview. Adolescent psychological adjustment was more strongly associated with self-reports than with CPS determinations. The implications of these findings are discussed for validity of adolescent self-reports of childhood abuse and for the ongoing debate about disclosure patterns among victims of child sexual abuse.

Reporting participants in research studies to Child Protective Services: limited risk to attrition.

This study examines the impact of Child Protective Services (CPS) reports made by research study staff on participant retention and discusses human subjects protocols that may minimize either the need to make such reports or the negative impact of reporting on participants and on participant retention. Among 1, 354 primary caregiver-child pairs in the Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect (LONGSCAN) studies, a total of 15 were reported to CPS by study staff. Within this group, rates of study-generated reports and study participation subsequent to having been reported by researchers were examined. There was an overall retention rate of 93% across a minimum of three interview waves in this sample. Reporting research participants to CPS may have little impact on attrition.

Defining maltreatment chronicity: are there differences in child outcomes?

OBJECTIVE: For nearly 25 years researchers have suggested that better taxonomic systems conceptualizing and reliably differentiating among different dimensions of maltreatment are required. This study examines the utility of three different characterizations of one dimension of maltreatment, chronicity, to predict child behavioral and emotional functioning in a sample of maltreated children. A secondary objective of the study is to examine additional parameters of maltreatment inherent in our definitions of chronicity: age at first report to CPS, extent and continuity of maltreatment. METHOD: The study consists of children reported for maltreatment (N=519) from the larger LONGSCAN study cohort. Lifetime maltreatment data were collected from CPS records and coded into two chronicity constructs: "developmental" and "calendar" definitions. Variables for age at first report, frequency, extent and continuity of maltreatment reports also were constructed. Hierarchical regression analyses were utilized to determine the extent to which the various chronicity constructs contributed to the prediction of child outcomes. RESULTS: The most salient definition of chronicity, in terms of its effects on child behavioral and emotional functioning, varied by outcome. The developmental definition was found to have the most balanced sensitivity across outcomes. Among other significant findings, extent and continuity of maltreatment contributed respectively to the prediction of behavior and emotional trauma symptoms. Early age at first report was a predictor of poor daily living skills. CONCLUSION: Chronicity is a complex construct. Findings indicate there are multiple parameters that make up the chronicity construct itself that may be important for understanding child outcomes.

Describing maltreatment: do child protective service reports and research definitions agree?

OBJECTIVE: The National Research Council identified inadequate research definitions for abuse and neglect as barriers to research in child maltreatment. We examine the concordance between child protective services (CPS) classifications of maltreatment type with the determinations of type from two research coding systems. We contrast the two coding systems and the CPS classification, in their ability to predict subsequent difficulties in the psychological functioning of maltreated children at age 8. METHOD: The sample included 545 children who were enrolled in Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect (LONGSCAN) with a report of child maltreatment, had data collected at approximately 4 and 8 years of age, and had a lifetime review of CPS records to age 8. CPS Maltreatment reports were coded using LONGSCAN's modification of the Maltreatment Classification System (MMCS) and the Second National Incidence Study maltreatment coding system (NIS-2). The first analyses used reports as the unit of analysis to examine agreement between CPS and research determinations of allegation type. Validation analyses examined outcomes for each type of maltreatment experienced after age 4 under each coding system using the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), Trauma Symptom Checklist-Alternative form, and the Vineland Screener as the measures of outcome. Control variables were the CBCL and Battelle Developmental Screener, measured at age 4. RESULTS: There were a total of 1980 reports of maltreatment for 545 study children although only 1593 CPS reports specified at least one type of maltreatment. There were differences between the type of maltreatment recorded in child protective service records and the conclusions reached by either research classification system. CPS classifications were most discordant with the research systems for emotional abuse and neglect. Nearly 10% of physical and sexual abuse reports, as determined by the MMCS, were classified as neglect by the child protective service agencies. The NIS-2 system and the MMCS had very high Kappa statistics for agreement for physical and sexual abuse. The validity of the research definitions for physical and sexual abuse was demonstrated in models predicting children's functioning at age 8. Prediction of child functioning was significantly but modestly improved in several domains compared to the CPS classifications. CONCLUSION: Both research classification systems moderately improved on the prediction of the adverse effects of maltreatment compared to the characterization of a maltreatment exposure as recorded by CPS.

Suicidal ideation among 8-year-olds who are maltreated and at risk: findings from the LONGSCAN studies.

Suicidal ideation was examined among 1,051 8-year-old children identified as maltreated or at risk for maltreatment. Of these children, 9.9% reported suicidal ideation. Many variables, including maltreatment, had bivariate associations with suicidal ideation. Severity of physical abuse, chronicity of maltreatment, and the presence of multiple types of maltreatment strongly predicted suicidal ideation. In multivariate analyses of the domains of proximity, only ethnic background remained significant among demographic variables, only witnessed violence and maltreatment remained significant among family or contextual variables, and only child psychological distress, substance use, and poor social problem solving remained significant among child variables. The effects of ethnicity, maltreatment, and witnessed violence on suicidal ideation were mediated by child functioning. There were few interactions between maltreatment and other factors to predict suicidal ideation. Children who are maltreated and those exposed to community and domestic violence are at increased risk of suicidal ideation, even by age 8.

Adverse Experiences and Suicidal Ideation in Adolescence: Exploring the Link Using the LONGSCAN Samples.

OBJECTIVE: Although widely studied in adults, the link between lifetime adversities and suicidal ideation in youth is poorly understood. The purpose of this study was to explore this link in adolescents. METHODS: The analyses used a sample of 740 16-year-old youth in the LONGSCAN sample, and distinguished between childhood (before the age of 12) and adolescent (between age 12 and age 16) adversities. RESULTS: There was a significant link between cumulative lifetime adversities and suicidal ideation. There was no evidence that this link was moderated by gender. Childhood adversities moderated the effects of adolescent adversities on suicidal ideation; effects of adolescent adversities were strongest at low levels of childhood adversities. There was also some evidence supporting a specific cumulative model of the effects of adversities on suicidal ideation; the most predictive model included the sum of the following adversities: childhood physical abuse, childhood neglect, childhood family violence, childhood residential instability, adolescent physical abuse, adolescent sexual abuse, adolescent psychological maltreatment, and adolescent community violence. CONCLUSION: The timing and nature of adversities are important in understanding youth suicidal ideation risk; in particular, adolescent maltreatment and community violence appear to be strong predictors. Preventing and appropriately responding to the abuse of adolescents has the potential to reduce the risk of suicidal ideation.

Forensic child sexual abuse evaluations: assessing subjectivity and bias in professional judgements.

OBJECTIVES: Evaluators examining the same evidence often arrive at substantially different conclusions in forensic assessments of child sexual abuse (CSA). This study attempts to identify and quantify subjective factors that contribute to such disagreements so that interventions can be devised to improve the reliability of case decisions. METHODS: Participants included 1106 professionals in the field of child maltreatment representing a range of professional positions or job titles and years of experience. Each completed the Child Forensic Attitude Scale (CFAS), a 28-item survey assessing 3 forensic attitudes believed to influence professional judgments about CSA allegations: emphasis-on-sensitivity (i.e., a focus on minimizing false negatives or errors of undercalling abuse); emphasis-on-specificity (i.e., a focus on minimizing false positives or errors of overcalling abuse); and skepticism toward child and adolescent reports of CSA. A subset of 605 professionals also participated in 1 of 3 diverse decision exercises to assess the influence of the 3 forensic attitudes on ratings of case credibility. RESULTS: Exploratory factor analysis identified 4 factors or attitude subscales that corresponded closely with the original CFAS scales: 2 subscales for emphasis-on-sensitivity and 1 each for emphasis-on-specificity and skepticism. Attitude subscale scores differed significantly by sample source (in-state trainings vs. national conferences), gender, years of experience, and professional position, with Child Protective Service workers unexpectedly more concerned about overcalling abuse and more skeptical of child disclosures than other professionals-a pattern of scores associated with an increased probability of disbelieving CSA allegations. The 3 decision exercises offered validation of the attitude subscales as predictors of professional ratings of case credibility, with adjusted R(2)s for the three exercises ranging from .06 to .24, suggesting highly variable effect sizes. CONCLUSIONS: Evaluator disagreements about CSA allegations can be explained, in part, by individual differences in 3 attitudes related to forensic decision-making: emphasis-on-sensitivity, emphasis-on-specificity, and skepticism toward child reports of abuse. These attitudes operate as predispositions or biases toward viewing CSA allegations as likely true or likely false. Several strategies for curbing the influence of subjective factors are highlighted including self-awareness of personal biases and team approaches to assessment.

Youth self-report of physical and sexual abuse: a latent class analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To determine if meaningful groups of at-risk pre-adolescent youth could be identified based on their self-report of physical and sexual abuse histories. METHODS: Youth participating in a consortium of ongoing longitudinal studies were interviewed using an audio-computer assisted self-interview (A-CASI) when they were approximately 12 years of age to obtain information about their perceived experiences of physical (18 items) and sexual (12 items) abuse. In addition, Child Protective Service records were reviewed and the taxonomy developed for defining maltreatment characteristics (Barnett, Manly, & Cicchetti, 1993) was applied. A total of 795 youth completed the age 12 interview and had their records reviewed during the period from birth to the time of their age 12 interview. A latent variable modeling approach, specifically latent class analysis (LCA), was used to generate profiles of youth based on their endorsements of the physical and sexual abuse items. These profiles were then compared to CPS reports of physical or sexual abuse to determine their validity. RESULTS: The LCA identified 4 interpretable classes or groups of pre-adolescent youth. Based on the pattern of responses to specific items the classes were identified as follows: (1) no physical or sexual abuse; (2) high physical abuse/low sexual abuse; (3) no physical abuse/moderate sexual abuse; and (4) high physical and sexual abuse. Follow-up analyses indicated that the odds of a CPS report for Classes 2, 3, and 4 compared to Class 1 were significantly greater (2.21, 2.55, and 5.10, respectively). CONCLUSION: The latent variable modeling approach allowed for the identification of meaningful groups of youth that accounted for both the occurrence of multiple types of abuse as well as differing severities associated with each type. It is suggested that this methodological approach may be most useful in future efforts to identify the antecedents and consequences of maltreatment. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: The results of the present study not only have implications for future research efforts, but also suggest that in practice, youth at-risk for maltreatment may be reliable and valid reporters of their physical and sexual abuse experiences.

Adverse childhood exposures and reported child health at age 12.

OBJECTIVE: The relationship between adverse childhood exposures and poor health, illness, and somatic complaints at age 12 was examined. METHODS: LONGSCAN (Consortium for Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect) tracks a group of children with variable risk for maltreatment. Of the participating child-caregiver dyads, 805 completed an interview when the child was age 4 or age 6, as well as interviews at age 8 and 12. The relationships between 8 categories of childhood adversity (psychological maltreatment, physical abuse, sexual abuse, child neglect, caregiver's substance/alcohol use, caregiver's depressive symptoms, caregiver's being treated violently, and criminal behavior in the household) and child health at age 12 were analyzed. The impact of adversity in the first 6 years of life and adversity in the second 6 years of life on child health were compared. RESULTS: Only 10% of the children had experienced no adversity, while more than 20% had experienced 5 or more types of childhood adversity. At age 12, 37% of the children sampled had some health complaint. Exposure to 5 or more adversities, particularly exposure in the second 6 years of life, was significantly associated with increased risks of any health complaint (odds ratio [OR] 2.24, 95% confidence interval [95% CI] 1.02-4.96), an illness requiring a doctor (OR 3.69, 95% CI 1.02-15.1), and caregivers' reports of child's somatic complaints (OR 3.37, 95% CI 1.14-1.0). There was no association between adverse exposures and self-rated poor health or self-rated somatic complaints. CONCLUSIONS: A comprehensive assessment of children's health should include a careful history of their past exposure to adverse conditions and maltreatment. Interventions aimed at reducing these exposures may result in better child health.