Blackleg in cattle: Current understanding and future research perspectives- A review.

Blackleg is an endogenous acute infection that principally affects cattle. The disease is caused by Clostridium chauvoei (C. chauvoei), an anaerobic spore forming bacterium. Control of this disease is based on stringent husbandry measures and scheduled vaccination plan. In recent years, the major virulence factors of C. chauvoei have been discovered and described. However, the pathogenesis of blackleg in cattle and in particular, circulation of the pathogen from point of entry to target tissues is yet not fully elucidated. This review summarizes the latest review of literature that significantly contributed for understanding the disease in cattle, and provides a foundation to preventive strategies.

Molecular epidemiology, associated risk factors, and phylogenetic analysis of anaplasmosis in camel.

Camel Anaplasmosis is caused by members of family Anaplasmatacae, a tick transmitted, obligate intracellular bacteria. The etiological bacteria are transmitted by ixodid tick species. The species have multi host range distribution that is why it is crucial to diagnose it timely. The aim of present study was to investigate the molecular epidemiology i.e. prevalence and risk factors analysis of camel anaplasmosis. Furthermore, variations in hematological standards were also evaluated. The study found an overall 13.33% prevalence in camels. The confirmation of PCR positive samples for Anaplasma spp. was made through sequencing, the study isolatesshowed high homology with Iranian, Chinese, Philippines and South African isolates of Anaplasmatacae (Accession numbers'; KX765882, KP062964, KY242456, LC007100 and U54806) on BLAST queries. The phylogenetic analysis revealedthree study isolates of present study clustered with each other and the cluster was found closer to Chinese isolate of A. phagocytophilum (KY242456), A. marginale (KU586048), and Mongolian isolates of A. ovis (LC194134). Two of the isolates resembled Iranian isolate of Candidatus Anaplasmacamelii (KX765882), while one isolate resembled with Chinese isolates of A. Platys (KX987336) and Croatian isolates of A. Platys (KY114935). The key risk factors odds ratio (OR>1) identified for occurrence of camel anaplasmosis using regression model found sex and age of animal, previous tick history, tick infestation and tick control status, housing type, cracks in walls, rearing system and other species in surrounding as the key risk factors. The hematological parameters like lymphocytes, monocytes, granulocytes and platelets count were significantly decreased (p < 0.05) in diseased camels than healthy. This is the first ever molecular data on camel anaplasmosis in Pakistan. The disease should be monitored unceasingly as the etiologies have multi host distribution. Prompt attention should be offered to animals because neutropenia, lymphopenia and thrombocytopenia can exacerbate the disease by making the animal predisposed to otherdiseases.

Bacterial count and predisposing factors of Clostridium perfringens (targeting CPA gene) infection along with antimicrobial sensitivity in diarrheic sheep in Pakistan.

Clostridium perfringens (C. perfringens) is a normal inhabitant in the gut of animals. It may proliferate rapidly in favorable conditions and produces lethal toxins. These toxins may cause lethal effects in the intestines and systemically it may cause enterotoxaemia. In disease conditions, the presence of C. perfringens CFU/g in fecal sample can be of diagnostic value. This study aims to determine the bacterial counts and predisposing factors of C. perfringens (targeting CPA gene) infection in addition to an in-vitro antimicrobial trial in entero-toxemic sheep in Pakistan. A total of 192 diarrheic sheep irrespective of age, gender and breed were selected and the CFU/g was determined from the fecal samples. The study showed that 34.9% of the samples had elevated level of bacterial count compared to the normal (104-107 CFU/g). Out of the total, 7.8% of the samples had subnormal bacterial count (CFU/g), while, 57.3% of the samples showed bacterial counts in the normal ranges. The confirmation of selectively isolated C. perfringens was done by amplification of 324bp CPA gene fragment using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The in-vitro antimicrobial sensitivity trials showed that penicillin, ciprofloxacin and ceftriaxone are 100% efficacious against C. perfringens, while, bacitracin, ampicillin and amoxicillin were found to be least effective. The key determinants in this study which support the in-vivo growths of C. perfringens were; carbohydrate rich diet and overcrowding with the odds ratios (OR) of 5.44 and 2.26, respectively. This study concludes that C. perfringens is highly prevalent in sheep population of Pakistan. The incidence of enterotoxaemia can be minimized by controlling the factors which enhance its in-vivo growth. The diseased animal associated with elevated C. perfringens levels can be effectively cured using any one of the penicillin, ciprofloxacin and ceftriaxone.