Inhibition of mammalian target of rapamycin augments lipopolysaccharide-induced lung injury and apoptosis.

Acute lung injury during bacterial infection is associated with neutrophilic inflammation, epithelial cell apoptosis, and disruption of the alveolar-capillary barrier. TLR4 is required for lung injury in animals exposed to bacterial LPS and initiates proinflammatory responses in part via the transcription factor NF-κB. Ligation of TLR4 also initiates a proapoptotic response by activating IFN-ß and STAT1-dependent genes. We recently demonstrated that mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), a key controller of cell growth and survival, can physically interact with STAT1 and suppress the induction of STAT1-dependent apoptosis genes. We therefore hypothesized that the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin would increase LPS-induced apoptosis and lung injury in vivo. Rapamycin increased lung injury and cellular apoptosis in C57BL/6J mice exposed to intratracheal LPS for 24 h. Rapamycin also augmented STAT1 activation, and the induction of STAT1-dependent genes that mediate cellular apoptosis (i.e., Fas, caspase-3). LPS-induced lung injury was attenuated in STAT1 knockout mice. In addition, LPS and IFN-ß-induced apoptosis was absent in cultured cells lacking STAT1, and, unlike in wild-type cells, a permissive effect of rapamycin was not observed. In contrast to its effect on STAT1, rapamycin inhibited NF-κB activation in vivo and reduced selected markers of inflammation (i.e., neutrophils in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, TNF-α). Therefore, although it inhibits NF-κB and neutrophilic inflammation, rapamycin augments LPS-induced lung injury and apoptosis in a mechanism that involves STAT1 and the induction of STAT1-dependent apoptosis genes.

Regulation of karyopherin α1 and nuclear import by mammalian target of rapamycin.

Under conditions of reduced mitogen or nutritional substrate levels, the serine/threonine kinase target of rapamycin can augment the nuclear content of distinct transcription factors and promote the induction of stress response genes. In its latent (i.e., unphosphorylated) form, the transcription factor STAT1 regulates a subset of genes involved in immune modulation and apoptosis. Based on previous work indicating a functional relationship between mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and the nuclear content of latent STAT1, we investigated the mechanism by which mTOR controls STAT1 nuclear import. By fluorescence confocal microscopy, inactivation of mTOR with rapamycin promoted the nuclear translocation of unphosphorylated STAT1, but not that of a STAT1 mutant incapable of binding its nuclear import adaptor karyopherin-α1 (KPNA1). By immunoprecipitation, KPNA1 was physically associated with mTOR and STAT1 in a complex that translocated to the nucleus in response to rapamycin. Although mTOR is not a kinase for KPNA1, the mTOR-associated phosphatase protein phosphatase 2A catalytic interacted directly with KPNA1 and regulated nuclear import of the mTOR-KPNA1 complex. KPNA1, or its interaction with STAT1, was required for the nuclear import of latent STAT1, transcriptional induction of the STAT1 gene, and caspase-3 activation under conditions of reduced mTOR activity (i.e. rapamycin, glucose starvation, serum withdrawal). Therefore, at low mitogen or nutrient levels, mTOR and protein phosphatase 2A catalytically control the constitutive nuclear import of latent STAT1 by KPNA1, which are key modulators of STAT1 expression and apoptosis.

Publisher Correction: Regulation of protein kinase Cδ Nuclear Import and Apoptosis by Mechanistic Target of Rapamycin Complex-1.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Regulation of protein kinase Cδ Nuclear Import and Apoptosis by Mechanistic Target of Rapamycin Complex-1.

Inactivation of the protein complex 'mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1' (mTORC1) can increase the nuclear content of transcriptional regulators of metabolism and apoptosis. Previous studies established that nuclear import of signal transducer and activator of transcription-1 (STAT1) requires the mTORC1-associated adaptor karyopherin-α1 (KPNA1) when mTORC1 activity is reduced. However, the role of other mTORC1-interacting proteins in the complex, including 'protein kinase C delta' (PKCδ), have not been well characterized. In this study, we demonstrate that PKCδ, a STAT1 kinase, contains a functional 'target of rapamycin signaling' (TOS) motif that directs its interaction with mTORC1. Depletion of KPNA1 by RNAi prevented the nuclear import of PKCδ in cells exposed to the mTORC1 inhibitor rapamycin or amino acid restriction. Mutation of the TOS motif in PKCδ led to its loss of regulation by mTORC1 or karyopherin-α1, resulting in increased constitutive nuclear content. In cells expressing wild-type PKCδ, STAT1 activity and apoptosis were increased by rapamycin or interferon-ß. Those expressing the PKCδ TOS mutant exhibited increased STAT1 activity and apoptosis; further enhancement by rapamycin or interferon-ß, however, was lost. Therefore, the TOS motif in PKCδ is a novel structural mechanism by which mTORC1 prevents PKCδ and STAT1 nuclear import, and apoptosis.

Paradoxical effects of rapamycin on experimental house dust mite-induced asthma.

The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) modulates immune responses and cellular proliferation. The objective of this study was to assess whether inhibition of mTOR with rapamycin modifies disease severity in two experimental murine models of house dust mite (HDM)-induced asthma. In an induction model, rapamycin was administered to BALB/c mice coincident with nasal HDM challenges for 3 weeks. In a treatment model, nasal HDM challenges were performed for 6 weeks and rapamycin treatment was administered during weeks 4 through 6. In the induction model, rapamycin significantly attenuated airway inflammation, airway hyperreactivity (AHR) and goblet cell hyperplasia. In contrast, treatment of established HDM-induced asthma with rapamycin exacerbated AHR and airway inflammation, whereas goblet cell hyperplasia was not modified. Phosphorylation of the S6 ribosomal protein, which is downstream of mTORC1, was increased after 3 weeks, but not 6 weeks of HDM-challenge. Rapamycin reduced S6 phosphorylation in HDM-challenged mice in both the induction and treatment models. Thus, the paradoxical effects of rapamycin on asthma severity paralleled the activation of mTOR signaling. Lastly, mediastinal lymph node re-stimulation experiments showed that treatment of rapamycin-naive T cells with ex vivo rapamycin decreased antigen-specific Th2 cytokine production, whereas prior exposure to in vivo rapamycin rendered T cells refractory to the suppressive effects of ex vivo rapamycin. We conclude that rapamycin had paradoxical effects on the pathogenesis of experimental HDM-induced asthma. Thus, consistent with the context-dependent effects of rapamycin on inflammation, the timing of mTOR inhibition may be an important determinant of efficacy and toxicity in HDM-induced asthma.

Inactivation of mammalian target of rapamycin increases STAT1 nuclear content and transcriptional activity in alpha4- and protein phosphatase 2A-dependent fashion.

Target of rapamycin (TOR) is a highly conserved serine/threonine kinase that controls cell growth, primarily via regulation of protein synthesis. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, TOR can also suppress the transcription of stress response genes by a mechanism involving Tap42, a serine/threonine phosphatase subunit, and the transcription factor Msn2. A physical association between mammalian TOR (mTOR) and the transcription factor signal transducer and activator of transcription-1 (STAT1) was recently identified in human cells, suggesting a similar role for mTOR in the transcription of interferon-gamma-stimulated genes. In the current study, we identified a macromolecular protein complex composed of mTOR, STAT1, the Tap42 homologue alpha4, and the protein phosphatase 2A catalytic subunit (PP2Ac). Inactivation of mTOR enhanced its association with STAT1 and increased STAT1 nuclear content in PP2Ac-dependent fashion. Depletion of alpha4, PP2A, or mTOR enhanced the induction of early (i.e. IRF-1) and late (i.e. caspase-1, hiNOS, and Fas) STAT1-dependent genes. The regulation of IRF-1 or caspase-1 by mTOR was independent of other known mTOR effectors p70 S6 kinase and Akt. These results describe a new role for mTOR and alpha4/PP2A in the control of STAT1 nuclear content, and the expression of interferon-gamma-sensitive genes involved in immunity and apoptosis.