CRISPR/Cas9 Mutagenesis through Introducing a Nanoparticle Complex Made of a Cationic Polymer and Nucleic Acids into Maize Protoplasts.

Presently, targeted gene mutagenesis attracts increasing attention both in plant research and crop improvement. In these approaches, successes are largely dependent on the efficiency of the delivery of gene editing components into plant cells. Here, we report the optimization of the cationic polymer poly(2-hydroxypropylene imine) (PHPI)-mediated delivery of plasmid DNAs, or single-stranded oligonucleotides labelled with Cyanine3 (Cy3) or 6-Carboxyfluorescein (6-FAM)-fluorescent dyes into maize protoplasts. Co-delivery of the GFP-expressing plasmid and the Cy3-conjugated oligonucleotides has resulted in the cytoplasmic and nuclear accumulation of the green fluorescent protein and a preferential nuclear localization of oligonucleotides. We show the application of nanoparticle complexes, i.e., "polyplexes" that comprise cationic polymers and nucleic acids, for CRISPR/Cas9 editing of maize cells. Knocking out the functional EGFP gene in transgenic maize protoplasts was achieved through the co-delivery of plasmids encoding components of the editing factors Cas9 (pFGC-pcoCas9) and gRNA (pZmU3-gRNA) after complexing with a cationic polymer (PHPI). Several edited microcalli were identified based on the lack of a GFP fluorescence signal. Multi-base and single-base deletions in the EGFP gene were confirmed using Sanger sequencing. The presented results support the use of the PHPI cationic polymer in plant protoplast-mediated genome editing approaches.

Mb- and FnCpf1 nucleases are active in mammalian cells: activities and PAM preferences of four wild-type Cpf1 nucleases and of their altered PAM specificity variants.

Cpf1s, the RNA-guided nucleases of the class II clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats system require a short motive called protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) to be present next to the targeted sequence for their activity. The TTTV PAM sequence of As- and LbCpf1 nucleases is relatively rare in the genome of higher eukaryotic organisms. Here, we show that two other Cpf1 nucleases, Fn- and MbCpf1, which have been reported to utilize a shorter, more frequently occurring PAM sequence (TTN) when tested in vitro, carry out efficient genome modification in mammalian cells. We found that all four Cpf1 nucleases showed similar activities and TTTV PAM preferences. Our approach also revealed that besides their activities their PAM preferences are also target dependent. To increase the number of the available targets for Fn- and MbCpf1 we generated their RVR and RR mutants with altered PAM specificity and compared them to the wild-type and analogous As- and LbCpf1 variants. The mutants gained new PAM specificities but retained their activity on targets with TTTV PAMs, redefining RR-Cpf1's PAM-specificities as TTYV/TCCV, respectively. These variants may become versatile substitutes for wild-type Cpf1s by providing an expanded range of targets for genome engineering applications.

Expression of the Prion Protein Family Member Shadoo Causes Drug Hypersensitivity That Is Diminished by the Coexpression of the Wild Type Prion Protein.

The prion protein (PrP) seems to exert both neuroprotective and neurotoxic activities. The toxic activities are associated with the C-terminal globular parts in the absence of the flexible N terminus, specifically the hydrophobic domain (HD) or the central region (CR). The wild type prion protein (PrP-WT), having an intact flexible part, exhibits neuroprotective qualities by virtue of diminishing many of the cytotoxic effects of these mutant prion proteins (PrPΔHD and PrPΔCR) when coexpressed. The prion protein family member Doppel, which possesses a three-dimensional fold similar to the C-terminal part of PrP, is also harmful to neuronal and other cells in various models, a phenotype that can also be eliminated by the coexpression of PrP-WT. In contrast, another prion protein family member, Shadoo (Sho), a natively disordered protein possessing structural features similar to the flexible N-terminal tail of PrP, exhibits PrP-WT-like protective properties. Here, we report that, contrary to expectations, Sho expression in SH-SY5Y or HEK293 cells induces the same toxic phenotype of drug hypersensitivity as PrPΔCR. This effect is exhibited in a dose-dependent manner and is also counteracted by the coexpression of PrP-WT. The opposing effects of Shadoo in different model systems revealed here may be explored to help discern the relationship of the various toxic activities of mutant PrPs with each other and the neurotoxic effects seen in neurodegenerative diseases, such as transmissible spongiform encephalopathy and Alzheimer disease.

Hofmeister ions control protein dynamics.

BACKGROUND: Recently, we have elaborated a thermodynamic theory that could coherently interpret the diverse effects of Hofmeister ions on proteins, based on a single physical parameter, the protein-water interfacial tension (Dér et al., Journal of Physical Chemistry B. 2007, 111, 5344-5350). This theory, implying a "liquid drop model", predicts changes in protein conformational fluctuations upon addition of Hofmeister salts (containing either kosmotropic or chaotropic anions) to the medium. METHODS: Here, we report experimental tests of this prediction using a complex approach by applying methods especially suited for the detection of protein fluctuation changes (neutron scattering, micro-calorimetry, and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy). RESULTS: It is demonstrated that Hofmeister salts, via setting the hydrophobic/hydrophilic properties of the protein-water interface, control conformational fluctuations even in the interior of the typical membrane transport protein bacteriorhodopsin, around its temperature-induced, unusual α(II)→α(I) conformational transition between 60 and 90°C. We found that below this transition kosmotropic (COOCH3(-)), while above it chaotropic (ClO4(-)) anions increase structural fluctuations of bR. It was also shown that, in each case, an onset of enhanced equilibrium fluctuations presages this phase transition in the course of the thermotropic response of bR. CONCLUSIONS: These results are in full agreement with the theory, and demonstrate that predictions based on protein-water interfacial tension changes can describe Hofmeister effects and interpret protein dynamics phenomena even in unusual cases. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE: This approach is expected to provide a useful guide to understand the principles governing the interplay between protein interfacial properties and conformational dynamics, in general.

New partner proteins containing novel internal recognition motif for human glutaminase interacting protein (hGIP).

Regulation of gene expression in cells is mediated by protein-protein, DNA-protein and receptor-ligand interactions. PDZ (PSD-95/Discs-large/ZO-1) domains are protein-protein interaction modules. PDZ-containing proteins function in the organization of multi-protein complexes controlling spatial and temporal fidelity of intracellular signaling pathways. In general, PDZ proteins possess multiple domains facilitating distinct interactions. The human glutaminase interacting protein (hGIP) is an unusual PDZ protein comprising entirely of a single PDZ domain and plays pivotal roles in many cellular processes through its interaction with the C-terminus of partner proteins. Here, we report the identification by yeast two-hybrid screening of two new hGIP-interacting partners, DTX1 and STAU1. Both proteins lack the typical C-terminal PDZ recognition motif but contain a novel internal hGIP recognition motif recently identified in a phage display library screen. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer and confocal microscopy analysis confirmed the in vivo association of hGIP with DTX1 and STAU1 in mammalian cells validating the previous discovery of S/T-X-V/L-D as a consensus internal motif for hGIP recognition. Similar to hGIP, DTX1 and STAU1 have been implicated in neuronal function. Identification of these new interacting partners furthers our understanding of GIP-regulated signaling cascades and these interactions may represent potential new drug targets in humans.

The G127V variant of the prion protein interferes with dimer formation in vitro but not in cellulo.

Scrapie prion, PrPSc, formation is the central event of all types of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), while the pathway with possible intermediates and their mechanism of formation from the normal isoform of prion (PrP), remains not fully understood. Recently, the G127V variant of the human PrP is reported to render the protein refractory to transmission of TSEs, via a yet unknown mechanism. Molecular dynamics studies suggested that this mutation interferes with the formation of PrP dimers. Here we analyze the dimerization of 127G and 127VPrP, in both in vitro and a mammalian cell culture system. Our results show that while molecular dynamics may capture the features affecting dimerization in vitro, G127V inhibiting dimer formation of PrP, these are not evidenced in a more complex cellular system.

Membrane Domain Localization and Interaction of the Prion-Family Proteins, Prion and Shadoo with Calnexin.

The cellular prion protein (PrPC) is renowned for its infectious conformational isoform PrPSc, capable of templating subsequent conversions of healthy PrPCs and thus triggering the group of incurable diseases known as transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. Besides this mechanism not being fully uncovered, the protein's physiological role is also elusive. PrPC and its newest, less understood paralog Shadoo are glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored proteins highly expressed in the central nervous system. While they share some attributes and neuroprotective actions, opposing roles have also been reported for the two; however, the amount of data about their exact functions is lacking. Protein-protein interactions and membrane microdomain localizations are key determinants of protein function. Accurate identification of these functions for a membrane protein, however, can become biased due to interactions occurring during sample processing. To avoid such artifacts, we apply a non-detergent-based membrane-fractionation approach to study the prion protein and Shadoo. We show that the two proteins occupy similarly raft and non-raft membrane fractions when expressed in N2a cells and that both proteins pull down the chaperone calnexin in both rafts and non-rafts. These indicate their possible binding to calnexin in both types of membrane domains, which might be a necessary requisite to aid the inherently unstable native conformation during their lifetime.

Hydroxylamine as a thermal destabiliser of bacteriorhodopsin.

The light-catalysed reaction of hydroxylamine (HA) with retinal is one of the basic features of bacteriorhodopsin (BR). Surprisingly, according to recent results, neither the photocycle and proton pumping of BR, nor the trans-cis isomerisation of retinal is prerequisite for photobleaching of BR in the presence of HA. How, then, is the accessibility of retinal to HA enhanced on illumination? We studied whether local thermal denaturation of BR, proposed recently, could provide an explanation for HA-promoted bleaching. According to our results, HA does not alter the absorption spectrum and the photocycle kinetics of BR substantially at room temperature, even at molar concentrations, but grossly affects the temperature of thermal denaturation. At pH 7, the presence of 0.5 M: HA reduces the denaturation temperature from 100°C to as low as 72°C. The decrease is proportional to the logarithm of the HA concentration over more than three orders of magnitude, and even 0.5 mM: HA has a significant effect. In addition, photobleaching becomes considerably faster with increasing temperature in the presence of HA, it takes a few seconds at 50-60°C. Our results suggest that photobleaching of BR in the presence of HA can be explained by overall destabilisation of the structure of the protein and local thermal denaturation that has already accounted for the photobleaching of the HA-free BR at elevated temperatures. These results further support the importance of thermooptic effects in protein photoreactions and identify HA as a thermal destabiliser of BR.

Stabilization of Na,K-ATPase by ionic interactions.

The effect of ions on the thermostability and unfolding of Na,K-ATPase from shark salt gland was studied and compared with that of Na,K-ATPase from pig kidney by using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and activity assays. In 1 mM histidine at pH 7, the shark enzyme inactivates rapidly at 20 degrees C, as does the kidney enzyme at 42 degrees C (but not at 20 degrees C). Increasing ionic strength by addition of 20 mM histidine, or of 1 mM NaCl or KCl, protects both enzymes against this rapid inactivation. As detected by DSC, the shark enzyme undergoes thermal unfolding at lower temperature (Tm approximately 45 degrees C) than does the kidney enzyme (Tm approximately 55 degrees C). Both calorimetric endotherms indicate multi-step unfolding, probably associated with different cooperative domains. Whereas the overall heat of unfolding is similar for the kidney enzyme in either 1 mM or 20 mM histidine, components with high mid-point temperatures are lost from the unfolding transition of the shark enzyme in 1 mM histidine, relative to that in 20 mM histidine. This is attributed to partial unfolding of the enzyme due to a high hydrostatic pressure during centrifugation of DSC samples at low ionic strength, which correlates with inactivation measurements. Addition of 10 mM NaCl to shark enzyme in 1 mM histidine protects against inactivation during centrifugation of the DSC sample, but incubation for 1 h at 20 degrees C prior to addition of NaCl results in loss of components with lower mid-point temperatures within the unfolding transition. Cations at millimolar concentration therefore afford at least two distinct modes of stabilization, likely affecting separate cooperative domains. The different thermal stabilities and denaturation temperatures of the two Na,K-ATPases correlate with the respective physiological temperatures, and may be attributed to the different lipid environments.

Interrogating the Dimerization Interface of the Prion Protein Via Site-Specific Mutations to p-Benzoyl-L-Phenylalanine.

Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies are centered on the conformational transition of the prion protein from a mainly helical, monomeric structure to a ß-sheet rich ordered aggregate. Experiments indicate that the main infectious and toxic species in this process are however shorter oligomers, formation of which from the monomers is yet enigmatic. Here, we created 25 variants of the mouse prion protein site-specifically containing one genetically-incorporated para-benzoyl-phenylalanine (pBpa), a cross-linkable non-natural amino acid, in order to interrogate the interface of a prion protein-dimer, which might lie on the pathway of oligomerization. Our results reveal that the N-terminal part of the prion protein, especially regions around position 127 and 107, is integral part of the dimer interface. These together with additional pBpa-containing variants of mPrP might also facilitate to gain more structural insights into oligomeric and fibrillar prion protein species including the pathological variants.

Crossing enhanced and high fidelity SpCas9 nucleases to optimize specificity and cleavage.

BACKGROUND: The propensity for off-target activity of Streptococcus pyogenes Cas9 (SpCas9) has been considerably decreased by rationally engineered variants with increased fidelity (eSpCas9; SpCas9-HF1). However, a subset of targets still generate considerable off-target effects. To deal specifically with these targets, we generated new "Highly enhanced Fidelity" nuclease variants (HeFSpCas9s) containing mutations from both eSpCas9 and SpCas9-HF1 and examined these improved nuclease variants side by side to decipher the factors that affect their specificities and to determine the optimal nuclease for applications sensitive to off-target effects. RESULTS: These three increased-fidelity nucleases can routinely be used only with perfectly matching 20-nucleotide-long spacers, a matching 5' G extension being more detrimental to their activities than a mismatching one. HeFSpCas9 exhibit substantially improved specificity for those targets for which eSpCas9 and SpCas9-HF1 have higher off-target propensity. The targets can also be ranked by their cleavability and off-target effects manifested by the increased fidelity nucleases. Furthermore, we show that the mutations in these variants may diminish the cleavage, but not the DNA-binding, of SpCas9s. CONCLUSIONS: No single nuclease variant shows generally superior fidelity; instead, for highest specificity cleavage, each target needs to be matched with an appropriate high-fidelity nuclease. We provide here a framework for generating new nuclease variants for targets that currently have no matching optimal nuclease, and offer a simple means for identifying the optimal nuclease for targets in the absence of accurate target-ranking prediction tools.

A convenient method to pre-screen candidate guide RNAs for CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing by NHEJ-mediated integration of a 'self-cleaving' GFP-expression plasmid.

The efficacies of guide RNAs (gRNAs), the short RNA molecules that bind to and determine the sequence specificity of the Streptococcus pyogenes Cas9 nuclease, to mediate DNA cleavage vary dramatically. Thus, the selection of appropriate target sites, and hence spacer sequence, is critical for most applications. Here, we describe a simple, unparalleled method for experimentally pre-testing the efficiencies of various gRNAs targeting a gene. The method explores NHEJ-cloning, genomic integration of a GFP-expressing plasmid without homologous arms and linearized in-cell. The use of 'self-cleaving' GFP-plasmids containing universal gRNAs and corresponding targets alleviates cloning burdens when this method is applied. These universal gRNAs mediate efficient plasmid cleavage and are designed to avoid genomic targets in several model species. The method combines the advantages of the straightforward FACS detection provided by applying fluorescent reporter systems and of the PCR-based approaches being capable of testing targets in their genomic context, without necessitating any extra cloning steps. Additionally, we show that NHEJ-cloning can also be used in mammalian cells for targeted integration of donor plasmids up to 10 kb in size, with up to 30% efficiency, without any selection or enrichment.

Specific DNA binding by the homeodomain Nkx2.5(C56S): detection of impaired DNA or unfolded protein by isothermal titration calorimetry.

Titrations of specific 18-bp duplex DNA with the cardiac-specific homeodomain Nkx2.5(C56S) have utilized an ultrasensitive isothermal titration calorimeter (ITC). As the free DNA nears depletion, we observe large apparent decreases in the binding enthalpy when the DNA is impaired or when the temperature is sufficiently high to produce some unfolding of the free protein. Either effect can be attributed to refolding of the biopolymer that occurs as a result of stabilization due to the large favorable change in free energy on the homeodomain binding to DNA (-49.4 kJ/mol at 298 K). In either case, thermodynamic parameters obtained in such ITC experiments are unreliable. By using a lower temperature (85 vs. 95 degrees C) during the annealing of complementary DNA strands, damage of the 18-bp duplex DNA (T(m) = 72 degrees C) is avoided, and titrations with the homeodomain are normal at temperatures from 10 to 40 degrees C when >95% of the protein is folded. Under the latter conditions, the heat capacity plot is linear with a DeltaC(p) value of -0.80 +/- 0.03 kJ K(-1) mol(-1), which is more negative than that calculated from the burial of solvent accessible surface areas (-0.64 +/- 0.05 kJ K(-1) mol(-1)), consistent with water structures being at the protein-DNA interfaces.

Cpf1 nucleases demonstrate robust activity to induce DNA modification by exploiting homology directed repair pathways in mammalian cells.

BACKGROUND: Cpf1 nucleases have recently been repurposed for site-specific genome modification. Two members of the Cpf1 family, the AsCpf1 from Acidaminococcus sp. and the LbCpf1 from Lachnospiraceae bacterium were shown to induce higher indel frequencies than SpCas9 when examining four randomly-selected target sequences for each type of nuclease. Whether they are a real match for Cas9 nucleases, however, remains to be verified. RESULTS: Here, we used AsCpf1 and LbCpf1 to induce homology directed repair, either single strand annealing (SSA) or homologous recombination (HR), in N2a mouse neuroblastoma cells. Exploiting a plasmid that contains two GFP halves with overlapping sequences and exploring 20 targets, on all but one both nucleases consistently performed with above 10 % efficiency. Several Cas9 nucleases have been previously characterised in order to find an orthogonal counterpart for the most widely used promiscuous SpCas9. Here, we found that AsCpf1 and LbCpf1 might be better candidates than three of the best such counterparts: Cas9 from Staphylococcus aureus, from Streptococcus thermophilus and from Neisseria meningitidis, when assessed for inducing efficient SSA mediated repair in N2a cells. When tested on genomic targets exploiting HR, both nucleases were able to induce the integration of a donor cassette with 1000 bp-long homologous arms. We also generated plasmids that express these Cpf1 nucleases together with their cognate crRNAs and that are equipped with type IIS restriction enzyme sites to facilitate spacer cloning. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that employing As- or LbCpf1 nuclease to induce homology directed repair in N2a cells, although is less effective at present than employing SpCas9, it is an equally or more effective tool than the most frequently used orthogonal Cas9 counterparts of SpCas9. These findings support the position of Cpf1 nucleases on the side of SpCas9 on the palette of effective genome engineering tools. REVIEWERS: This article was reviewed by Eugene Koonin, Haruhiko Siomi and Jean-Yves Masson.

Prion Protein Does Not Confer Resistance to Hippocampus-Derived Zpl Cells against the Toxic Effects of Cu2+, Mn2+, Zn2+ and Co2+ Not Supporting a General Protective Role for PrP in Transition Metal Induced Toxicity.

The interactions of transition metals with the prion protein (PrP) are well-documented and characterized, however, there is no consensus on their role in either the physiology of PrP or PrP-related neurodegenerative disorders. PrP has been reported to protect cells from the toxic stimuli of metals. By employing a cell viability assay, we examined the effects of various concentrations of Cu2+, Zn2+, Mn2+, and Co2+ on Zpl (Prnp-/-) and ZW (Prnp+/+) hippocampus-derived mouse neuronal cells. Prnp-/- Zpl cells were more sensitive to all four metals than PrP-expressing Zw cells. However, when we introduced PrP or only the empty vector into Zpl cells, we could not discern any protective effect associated with the presence of PrP. This observation was further corroborated when assessing the toxic effect of metals by propidium-iodide staining and fluorescence activated cell sorting analysis. Thus, our results on this mouse cell culture model do not seem to support a strong protective role for PrP against transition metal toxicity and also emphasize the necessity of extreme care when comparing cells derived from PrP knock-out and wild type mice.

Heat stress causes spatially-distinct membrane re-modelling in K562 leukemia cells.

Cellular membranes respond rapidly to various environmental perturbations. Previously we showed that modulations in membrane fluidity achieved by heat stress (HS) resulted in pronounced membrane organization alterations which could be intimately linked to the expression and cellular distribution of heat shock proteins. Here we examine heat-induced membrane changes using several visualisation methods. With Laurdan two-photon microscopy we demonstrate that, in contrast to the enhanced formation of ordered domains in surface membranes, the molecular disorder is significantly elevated within the internal membranes of cells preexposed to mild HS. These results were compared with those obtained by anisotropy, fluorescence lifetime and electron paramagnetic resonance measurements. All probes detected membrane changes upon HS. However, the structurally different probes revealed substantially distinct alterations in membrane heterogeneity. These data call attention to the careful interpretation of results obtained with only a single label. Subtle changes in membrane microstructure in the decision-making of thermal cell killing could have potential application in cancer therapy.

The binding of DYNLL2 to myosin Va requires alternatively spliced exon B and stabilizes a portion of the myosin's coiled-coil domain.

The myosin Va light chain DYNLL2 has been proposed to function as an adaptor to link the myosin to certain cargo. Here, we mapped the binding site for DYNLL2 within the myosin Va heavy chain. Copurification and pull-down experiments showed that the heavy chain contains a single DYNLL2 binding site and that this site resides within a discontinuity in the myosin's central coiled-coil domain. Importantly, exon B, an alternatively spliced, three-amino acid exon, is a part of this binding site, and we show in the context of full-length myosin Va that this exon is required for DYNLL2-myosin Va interaction. We investigated the effect of DYNLL2 binding on the structure of a myosin Va heavy chain fragment that contains the DYNLL2 binding site and flanking sequence, only parts of which are strongly predicted to form a coiled coil. Circular dichroism measurements revealed a DYNLL2-induced change in the secondary structure of this dimeric myosin fragment that is consistent with an increase in alpha-helical coiled-coil content. Moreover, the binding of DYNLL2 considerably stabilizes this heavy chain fragment against thermal denaturation. Analytical ultracentrifugation yielded an apparent association constant of approximately 3 x 10(6) M(-1) for the interaction of DYNLL2 with the dimeric myosin fragment. Together, these data show that alternative splicing of the myosin Va heavy chain controls DYNLL2-myosin Va interaction and that DYNLL2 binding alters the structure of a portion of the myosin's coiled-coil domain. These results suggest that exon B could have a significant impact on the conformation and regulatory folding of native myosin Va, as well as on its interaction with certain cargos.

Cardiac-specific Nkx2.5 homeodomain: conformational stability and specific DNA binding of Nkx2.5(C56S).

The cardiac-specific Nkx2.5 homeodomain has been expressed as a 79-residue protein with the oxidizable Cys(56) replaced with Ser. The Nkx2.5 or Nkx2.5(C56S) homeodomain is 73% identical in sequence to and has the same NMR structure as the vnd (ventral nervous system defective)/NK-2 homeodomain of Drosophila when bound to the same specific DNA. The thermal unfolding of Nkx2.5(C56S) at pH 6.0 or 7.4 is a reversible, two-state process with unit cooperativity, as measured by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and far-UV circular dichroism. Adding 100 mM NaCl to Nkx2.5(C56S) at pH 7.4 increases T(m) from 44 to 54 +/- 0.2 degrees C and DeltaH from 34 to 45 +/- 2 kcal/mol (giving a DeltaC(p) of approximately 1.2 kcal K(-)(1) mol(-)(1) for homeodomain unfolding). DSC profiles of Nkx2.5 indicate fluctuating nativelike structures at <37 degrees C. Titrations of specific 18 bp DNA with Nkx2.5(C56S) in buffer at pH 7.4 with 100 mM NaCl yield binding constants of 2-6 x 10(8) M(-)(1) from 10 to 37 degrees C and a stoichiometry of 1:1 for homeodomain binding DNA, using isothermal titration calorimetry. The DNA binding reaction of Nkx2.5 is enthalpically controlled, and the temperature dependence of DeltaH gives a DeltaC(p) of -0.18 +/- 0.01 kcal K(-)(1) mol(-)(1). This corresponds to 648 +/- 36 A(2) of buried apolar surface upon Nkx2.5(C56S) binding duplex B-DNA. Thermodynamic parameters differ for Nkx2.5 and vnd/NK-2 homeodomains binding specific DNA. Unbound NK-2 is more flexible than Nkx2.5.