Optimizing the linearity in high-speed photodiodes.

Analog photonic links require high-fidelity, high-speed optical-to-electrical conversion for applications such as radio-over-fiber, synchronization at kilometer-scale facilities, and low-noise electronic signal generation. Photodetector nonlinearity is a particularly vexing problem, causing signal distortion and excess noise, especially in systems utilizing ultrashort optical pulses. Here we show that photodetectors designed for high power handling and high linearity can perform optical-to-electrical conversion of ultrashort optical pulses with unprecedented linearity over a large photocurrent range. We also corroborate and expand upon the physical understanding of how the broadband, complex impedance of the circuit following the photodiode modifies the linearity - in some cases quite significantly. By externally manipulating the circuit impedance, we extend the detector's linear range to higher photocurrents, with over 50 dB rejection of amplitude-to-phase conversion for photocurrents up to 40 mA. This represents a 1000-fold improvement over state-of-the-art photodiodes and significantly extends the attainable microwave power by a factor of four. As such, we eliminate the long-standing requirement in ultrashort pulse detection of precise tuning of the photodiode's operating parameters to coincide with a nonlinearity minimum. These results should also apply more generally to reduce nonlinear distortion in a range of other microwave photonics applications.

Compact, thermal-noise-limited reference cavity for ultra-low-noise microwave generation.

We demonstrate an easy-to-manufacture 25-mm-long ultra-stable optical reference cavity for transportable photonic microwave generation systems. Employing a rigid holding geometry that is first-order insensitive to the squeezing force and a cavity geometry that improves the thermal noise limit at room temperature, we observe a laser phase noise that is nearly thermal noise limited for three frequency decades (1 Hz to 1 kHz offset) and supports 10 GHz generation with phase noise near -100 dBc/Hz at 1 Hz offset and <-173 dBc/Hz for all offsets >600 Hz. The fractional frequency stability reaches 2×10-15 at 0.1 s of averaging.

Hyperpolarizability and Operational Magic Wavelength in an Optical Lattice Clock.

Optical clocks benefit from tight atomic confinement enabling extended interrogation times as well as Doppler- and recoil-free operation. However, these benefits come at the cost of frequency shifts that, if not properly controlled, may degrade clock accuracy. Numerous theoretical studies have predicted optical lattice clock frequency shifts that scale nonlinearly with trap depth. To experimentally observe and constrain these shifts in an ^{171}Yb optical lattice clock, we construct a lattice enhancement cavity that exaggerates the light shifts. We observe an atomic temperature that is proportional to the optical trap depth, fundamentally altering the scaling of trap-induced light shifts and simplifying their parametrization. We identify an "operational" magic wavelength where frequency shifts are insensitive to changes in trap depth. These measurements and scaling analysis constitute an essential systematic characterization for clock operation at the 10^{-18} level and beyond.

A low-threshold self-referenced Ti:Sapphire optical frequency comb.

We demonstrate an octave-spanning, self-referenced optical frequency comb produced with a high-repetition-rate (frep=585 MHz) femtosecond Ti:Sapphire laser that requires less than 1 W of 532 nm pump power. The frequency comb was stabilized to a CW laser as required for optical clocks and low noise frequency synthesis. These results should be relevant for applications that require more-compact and efficient frequency combs.

Broadly tunable, low timing jitter, high repetition rate optoelectronic comb generator.

We investigate the low timing jitter properties of a tunable single-pass optoelectronic frequency comb generator. The scheme is flexible in that both the repetition rate and center frequency can be continuously tuned. When operated with 10 GHz comb spacing, the integrated residual pulse-to-pulse timing jitter is 11.35 fs (1 Hz to 10 MHz) with no feedback stabilization. The corresponding phase noise at 1 Hz offset from the photodetected 10 GHz carrier is -100 dBc/Hz.

Generation of 20 GHz, sub-40 fs pulses at 960 nm via repetition-rate multiplication.

Optical filtering of a stabilized 1 GHz optical frequency comb produces a 20 GHz comb with approximately 40 nm bandwidth (FWHM) at 960 nm. Use of a low-finesse Fabry-Pérot cavity in a double-pass configuration provides a broad cavity coupling bandwidth (Deltalambda/lambda approximately 10%) and large suppression (50 dB) of unwanted modes. Pulse durations shorter than 40 fs with less than 2% residual amplitude modulation are achieved.

Spin-1/2 optical lattice clock.

We experimentally investigate an optical clock based on ;{171}Yb (I = 1/2) atoms confined in an optical lattice. We have evaluated all known frequency shifts to the clock transition, including a density-dependent collision shift, with a fractional uncertainty of 3.4 x 10;{-16}, limited principally by uncertainty in the blackbody radiation Stark shift. We measured the absolute clock transition frequency relative to the NIST-F1 Cs fountain clock and find the frequency to be 518 295 836 590 865.2(0.7) Hz.

Optical lattice induced light shifts in an yb atomic clock.

We present an experimental study of the lattice-induced light shifts on the (1)S(0) --> (3)P(0) optical clock transition (nu(clock) approximately 518 THz) in neutral ytterbium. The "magic" frequency nu(magic) for the 174Yb isotope was determined to be 394 799 475(35) MHz, which leads to a first order light shift uncertainty of 0.38 Hz. We also investigated the hyperpolarizability shifts due to the nearby 6s6p(3)P(0) --> 6s8p(3)P(0), 6s8p(3)P(2), and 6s5f(3)F(2) two-photon resonances at 759.708, 754.23, and 764.95 nm, respectively. By measuring the corresponding clock transition shifts near these two-photon resonances, the hyperpolarizability shift was estimated to be 170(33) mHz for a linear polarized, 50 microK deep, lattice at the magic wavelength. These results indicate that the differential polarizability and hyperpolarizability frequency shift uncertainties in a Yb lattice clock could be held to well below 10(-17).

Frequency ratio of Al+ and Hg+ single-ion optical clocks; metrology at the 17th decimal place.

Time has always had a special status in physics because of its fundamental role in specifying the regularities of nature and because of the extraordinary precision with which it can be measured. This precision enables tests of fundamental physics and cosmology, as well as practical applications such as satellite navigation. Recently, a regime of operation for atomic clocks based on optical transitions has become possible, promising even higher performance. We report the frequency ratio of two optical atomic clocks with a fractional uncertainty of 5.2 x 10(-17). The ratio of aluminum and mercury single-ion optical clock frequencies nuAl+/nuHg+ is 1.052871833148990438(55), where the uncertainty comprises a statistical measurement uncertainty of 4.3 x 10(-17), and systematic uncertainties of 1.9 x 10(-17) and 2.3 x 10(-17) in the mercury and aluminum frequency standards, respectively. Repeated measurements during the past year yield a preliminary constraint on the temporal variation of the fine-structure constant alpha of alpha/alpha = (-1.6+/-2.3) x 10(-17)/year.

Sr lattice clock at 1 x 10(-16) fractional uncertainty by remote optical evaluation with a Ca clock.

Optical atomic clocks promise timekeeping at the highest precision and accuracy, owing to their high operating frequencies. Rigorous evaluations of these clocks require direct comparisons between them. We have realized a high-performance remote comparison of optical clocks over kilometer-scale urban distances, a key step for development, dissemination, and application of these optical standards. Through this remote comparison and a proper design of lattice-confined neutral atoms for clock operation, we evaluate the uncertainty of a strontium (Sr) optical lattice clock at the 1 x 10(-16) fractional level, surpassing the current best evaluations of cesium (Cs) primary standards. We also report on the observation of density-dependent effects in the spin-polarized fermionic sample and discuss the current limiting effect of blackbody radiation-induced frequency shifts.

Precision atomic spectroscopy for improved limits on variation of the fine structure constant and local position invariance.

We report tests of local position invariance and the variation of fundamental constants from measurements of the frequency ratio of the 282-nm 199Hg+ optical clock transition to the ground state hyperfine splitting in 133Cs. Analysis of the frequency ratio of the two clocks, extending over 6 yr at NIST, is used to place a limit on its fractional variation of <5.8x10(-6) per change in normalized solar gravitational potential. The same frequency ratio is also used to obtain 20-fold improvement over previous limits on the fractional variation of the fine structure constant of |alpha/alpha|<1.3x10(-16) yr-1, assuming invariance of other fundamental constants. Comparisons of our results with those previously reported for the absolute optical frequency measurements in H and 171Yb+ vs other 133Cs standards yield a coupled constraint of -1.5x10(-15)

Observation of the 1S0-->3P0 clock transition in 27Al+.

We report, for the first time, laser spectroscopy of the 1S0-->3P0 clock transition in 27Al+. A single aluminum ion and a single beryllium ion are simultaneously confined in a linear Paul trap, coupled by their mutual Coulomb repulsion. This coupling allows the beryllium ion to sympathetically cool the aluminum ion and also enables transfer of the aluminum's electronic state to the beryllium's hyperfine state, which can be measured with high fidelity. These techniques are applied to measure the clock transition frequency nu=1,121,015,393,207,851(6) Hz. They are also used to measure the lifetime of the metastable clock state tau=20.6+/-1.4 s, the ground state 1S0 g factor gS=-0.000,792,48(14), and the excited state 3P0 g factor gP=-0.001,976,86(21), in units of the Bohr magneton.

Octave-spanning Ti:sapphire laser with a repetition rate >1 ghz for optical frequency measurements and comparisons.

We demonstrate a self-referenced, octave-spanning, mode-locked Ti:sapphire laser with a scalable repetition rate (550 MHz - 1.35 GHz). We use the frequency comb output of the laser, without additional broadening in optical fiber, for simultaneous measurements against atomic optical standards at 534, 578, 563, and 657 nm and to stabilize the laser offset frequency.

Kilohertz-resolution spectroscopy of cold atoms with an optical frequency comb.

We have performed sub-Doppler spectroscopy on the narrow intercombination line of cold calcium atoms using the amplified output of a femtosecond laser frequency comb. Injection locking of a 657-nm diode laser with a femtosecond comb allows for two regimes of amplification, one in which many lines of the comb are amplified, and one where a single line is predominantly amplified. The output of the laser in both regimes was used to perform kilohertz-level spectroscopy. This experiment demonstrates the potential for high-resolution absolute-frequency spectroscopy over the entire spectrum of the frequency comb output using a single high-finesse optical reference cavity.

Single-atom optical clock with high accuracy.

For the past 50 years, atomic standards based on the frequency of the cesium ground-state hyperfine transition have been the most accurate time pieces in the world. We now report a comparison between the cesium fountain standard NIST-F1, which has been evaluated with an inaccuracy of about 4 x 10(-16), and an optical frequency standard based on an ultraviolet transition in a single, laser-cooled mercury ion for which the fractional systematic frequency uncertainty was below 7.2 x 10(-17). The absolute frequency of the transition was measured versus cesium to be 1,064,721,609,899,144.94 (97) Hz, with a statistically limited total fractional uncertainty of 9.1 x 10(-16) the most accurate absolute measurement of an optical frequency to date.

Solid-state carrier-envelope phase stabilization via quantum interference control of injected photocurrents.

We demonstrate carrier-envelope phase stabilization of a mode-locked Ti:sapphire laser by use of quantum interference control of injected photocurrents in a semiconductor. No harmonic generation is required for this stabilization technique. Instead, interference between coexisting single- and two-photon absorption pathways in the semiconductor provides a phase comparison between different spectral components. The phase comparison, and the detection of the photocurrent that it produces, both occur within a single low-temperature-grown gallium arsenide sample. The carrier-envelope offset beat note fidelity is 30 dB in a 10-kHz resolution bandwidth. The out-of-loop phase-noise level is essentially identical to the best previous measurements with the standard self-referencing technique.

Observation and absolute frequency measurements of the 1S0-3P0 optical clock transition in neutral ytterbium.

We report the direct excitation of the highly forbidden (6s2) 1S0 <--> (6s6p) 3P0 optical transition in two odd isotopes of neutral ytterbium. As the excitation laser frequency is scanned, absorption is detected by monitoring the depletion from an atomic cloud at approximately 70 microK in a magneto-optical trap. The measured frequency in 171Yb (F=1/2) is 518,295,836,591.6 +/- 4.4 kHz. The measured frequency in 173Yb (F=5/2) is 518,294,576,847.6 +/- 4.4 kHz. Measurements are made with a femtosecond-laser frequency comb calibrated by the National Institute of Standards and Technology cesium fountain clock and represent nearly a 10(6)-fold reduction in uncertainty. The natural linewidth of these J=0 to J=0 transitions is calculated to be approximately 10 mHz, making them well suited to support a new generation of optical atomic clocks based on confinement in an optical lattice.

Phase stabilization of an octave-spanning Ti:sapphire laser.

We obtain direct stabilization of the carrier-envelope phase for a standard x-folded geometry, octave-spanning, Ti:sapphire laser. The in-loop accumulated carrier-envelope phase error is 0.175 rad (1.65 mHz to 102 kHz). Intracavity continuum generation, which is responsible for the octave bandwidth, is characterized through measurement of the beam parameters.

Nonlinear polarization evolution of ultrashort pulses in microstructure fiber.

We present experimental and numerical results for nonlinear polarization evolution of femtosecond pulses during propagation in microstructure fiber. Numerical modeling shows that fiber dispersion permits a long interaction length between the components polarized along the two principal axes, thereby enhancing the effective nonlinear polarization evolution in microstructure fiber.

Mitosis in vertebrate somatic cells with two spindles: implications for the metaphase/anaphase transition checkpoint and cleavage.

During mitosis an inhibitory activity associated with unattached kinetochores prevents PtK1 cells from entering anaphase until all kinetochores become attached to the spindle. To gain a better understanding of how unattached kinetochores block the metaphase/anaphase transition we followed mitosis in PtK1 cells containing two independent spindles in a common cytoplasm. We found that unattached kinetochores on one spindle did not block anaphase onset in a neighboring mature metaphase spindle 20 microm away that lacked unattached kinetochores. As in cells containing a single spindle, anaphase onset occurred in the mature spindles x = 24 min after the last kinetochore attached regardless of whether the adjacent immature spindle contained one or more unattached kinetochores. These findings reveal that the inhibitory activity associated with an unattached kinetochore is functionally limited to the vicinity of the spindle containing the unattached kinetochore. We also found that once a mature spindle entered anaphase the neighboring spindle also entered anaphase x = 9 min later regardless of whether it contained monooriented chromosomes. Thus, anaphase onset in the mature spindle catalyzes a "start anaphase" reaction that spreads globally throughout the cytoplasm and overrides the inhibitory signal produced by unattached kinetochores in an adjacent spindle. Finally, we found that cleavage furrows often formed between the two independent spindles. This reveals that the presence of chromosomes and/or a spindle between two centrosomes is not a prerequisite for cleavage in vertebrate somatic cells.