Chromosome 4 localization of a second gene for autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease.

Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) is a genetically heterogeneous disorder. A gene defect located on the short arm of chromosome 16 is responsible for the disease in roughly 86% of affected European families. Using highly polymorphic microsatellite DNA markers, we have assigned a second gene for ADPKD to chromosome 4. In eight families with clear evidence against linkage to chromosome 16 markers, linkage analysis with the markers D4S231 and D4S423, demonstrated a multipoint lod score of 22.42.

Expanding the range of ZNF804A variants conferring risk of psychosis.

A trio of genome-wide association studies recently reported sequence variants at three loci to be significantly associated with schizophrenia. No sequence polymorphism had been unequivocally (P<5 × 10(-8)) associated with schizophrenia earlier. However, one variant, rs1344706[T], had come very close. This polymorphism, located in an intron of ZNF804A, was reported to associate with schizophrenia with a P-value of 1.6 × 10(-7), and with psychosis (schizophrenia plus bipolar disorder) with a P-value of 1.0 × 10(-8). In this study, using 5164 schizophrenia cases and 20,709 controls, we replicated the association with schizophrenia (odds ratio OR = 1.08, P = 0.0029) and, by adding bipolar disorder patients, we also confirmed the association with psychosis (added N = 609, OR = 1.09, P = 0.00065). Furthermore, as it has been proposed that variants such as rs1344706[T]-common and with low relative risk-may also serve to identify regions harboring less common, higher-risk susceptibility alleles, we searched ZNF804A for large copy number variants (CNVs) in 4235 psychosis patients, 1173 patients with other psychiatric disorders and 39,481 controls. We identified two CNVs including at least part of ZNF804A in psychosis patients and no ZNF804A CNVs in controls (P = 0.013 for association with psychosis). In addition, we found a ZNF804A CNV in an anxiety patient (P = 0.0016 for association with the larger set of psychiatric disorders).

A whole genome association study in Finnish multiple sclerosis patients with 3669 markers.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a demyelinating disease of the central nervous system with complex genetic background. In the present study, based in the Finnish population, we typed a large number of microsatellite markers in separately pooled DNA samples from 195 MS patients and 205 controls. A total of 108 markers showed evidence of association. Five genomic regions containing two or more of these markers within a 1-Mb interval were identified, 1q43, 2p16, 4p15, 4q34 and 6p21 (the MHC region). Substantial overlap with previously published linkage genome screens is also seen.

Mapping the locus of atrophia areata, a helicoid peripapillary chorioretinal degeneration with autosomal dominant inheritance, to chromosome 11p15.

Atrophia areata (AA) is an early onset autosomal dominant helicoid peripapillary chorioretinal degeneration, which was first demonstrated to be hereditary in an Icelandic family. It is characterized by bilateral wing-shaped atrophic areas of the retina, radiating from the optic disk. Primary complaints of affected individuals are due to refractive errors and scotomata associated with myopia which increases with age. A genome linkage search with 112 microsatellite DNA markers resulted in the highest probability of location for AA on chromosome 11. We genotyped 18 polymorphic markers on chromosome 11 and seven showed significant linkage to AA. The markers D11S1323 and D11S902 on 11p15 flank the region encompassing the gene for AA.

Gene organization of haplotypes expressing two different C4A allotypes.

The gene organization of C4 haplotypes expressing two different C4A allotypes with a C4B null allele (C4A3A2BQ0 and C4A3A6BQO) was studied using Southern blot analysis with cDNA probes and restriction enzymes which give C4A and C4B locus-specific restriction fragments. These haplotypes were shown to have both a C4A and a C4B locus present, suggesting that the C4B locus expresses a C4A protein. The finding of a 21-OH A and a 21-OH B gene on the C4A3A6BQO haplotype further suggests that this haplotype has the common gene organization C4A, 21-OH A, C4B, 21-OH B. A model explaining C4 null alleles on haplotypes found to have two C4 loci is presented.

A family showing apparent X linked inheritance of both anencephaly and spina bifida.

A family is reported which includes five males, two with spina bifida, two sibs with anencephaly, and one with both high and low spinal lesions. The affected subjects came from four sibships in three generations. The mode of inheritance of these neural tube defects is consistent with X linkage.

Heterogeneity of human C4 gene size. A large intron (6.5 kb) is present in all C4A genes and some C4B genes.

In this article we present a study showing that the human C4 genes differ in length because of the presence or absence of a 6.5 kb intron near the 5' end of the gene. DNA from individuals of known HLA, factor B, and C4 haplotypes was analyzed for restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) by Southern blot analysis with C4-specific cDNA probes. The RFLP patterns obtained showed that the C4 genes are either 22.5 kb or 16 kb in length. They are referred to as long and short C4 genes, respectively. A population study was carried out to examine the distribution of the gene size according to C4 allotypes and haplotypes. Long C4 genes included all C4A genes studied and also some C4B allotypes, e.g., B1 on most C4 A3B1 haplotypes. Similarly, C4B null genes were found to be of the long form. Other C4B allotypes tested were found to be coded for by short C4 genes, including B2, B1 in C4 A6B1 and C4 AQOB1 (with a single C4B gene haplotype).

[Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease in Iceland - genetic study.].

OBJECTIVE: Autosomal dominand polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) is one of the most common genetic diseases in humans and accounts for 8-10% of end-stage renal failure. The disease is caused by mutations in at least three different genes. About 85% of families with ADPKS have a mutation in a gene (PKD1) on chromosome 16p, whereas 10-15% have a mutation in a gene (PKD2) on chromosom 4q. In a few families, a third gene (PKD3) of unkonown location appears to be involved. The purpose of this study was to determine the genotype of Icelandic families with ADPKD. MATERIAL AND METHODS: We isloated DNA from 229 family members and generated genotypes for polymorphic markers with conventional methods. Linkage analysis and haplotype analysis weere performed in 14 ADPKD families, employing merkers from the PKD1 and PKD2 regions. RESULTS: The abnormal gene could be located in 13 families. Eleven families demonstrated linkage to the PKD2 locus. Comparison of the haplotypes of the PKD1 families indicates that nine different mutations cause ADPKD1 in Iceland, including one de novo mutation. The two ADPKD2 families each have a distinct haplotype. Thererfor, at least 11 different mutations cause ADPKD in Icelnad. In cooperation with Dutch scientists, one mutation in the PKD2 gene was defined, a 16 bp deletion of a spice site between intron 1 and exon 2. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrate marked genetic heterogeneity of ADPKD in the Icelandic population. As expected, most of the families have evidence for mutation in the PKD1 gene. The stage has been set for future work, which will focus on detecting mutations in the PKD genes and defining the correlation between mutations and phenotype of the disease.

Icelandic families with autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease: families unlinked to chromosome 16p13.3 revealed by linkage analysis.

We have mainly used 3 highly polymorphic DNA markers, 3'HVR (D16S85), 16AC2.5 (D16S291) and SM7 (D16S283), flanking the PKD1 region on chromosome 16p13.3 to establish linkage status in seven Icelandic families with autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD). In four families, the disease locus is in the PKD1 region, and three families are "unlinked" to chromosome 16p13.3. In one of the "unlinked" families, the disease locus is excluded from a part of the long arm of chromosome 2, and we support a theory of more than 2 loci being responsible for ADPKD. Our data confirm the location of the locus YNH24 (D2S44) to chromosome 2q13-q24.

A study of the major histocompatibility complex in a Caucasian family with multiple cases of systemic lupus erythematosus: association with the C4AQ0 phenotype.

OBJECTIVE: In an epidemiological survey of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) in Iceland several families with multiple cases were identified. In one family, 35 individuals (family members and spouses) in 3 generations were studied clinically, tested for autoantibody formation, and typed for HLA and toxicity complement phenotypes. METHODS: Typing for HLA-A, B, C, DR, and DQ was performed by microlymphocytotoxic assay. In selected samples HLA-DR typing by polymerase chain reaction amplification with sequence specific primers was performed. C4 allotypes were defined by agarose gel protein electrophoresis followed by immunofixation with goat antisera. RESULTS: Five family members fulfilled 4 or more criteria for SLE. Additionally, 5 family members had clinical manifestations or positive serology but did not fulfill 4 ARA criteria. The mean age at onset of symptoms was 22 yrs (8-40). Other autoimmune diseases were not documented in family members. C4A null seemed to be highly associated with disease in this family. All except one patient with SLE and all those with clinical manifestations and positive serology had C4A null in the homozygous or heterozygous form. The individual with SLE and not carrying C4A null had both HLA haplotypes identical. It is noteworthy that there were 5 different C4A null bearing haplotypes involved, of which 3 originated from the spouses. CONCLUSION: Our results are consistent with the argument that C4A deficiency plays a role in the pathogenesis of SLE. There is, however, the possibility of an unidentified environmental or another genetic factor being involved.

A study of the association of HLA DR, DQ, and complement C4 alleles with systemic lupus erythematosus in Iceland.

OBJECTIVE: To perform an exploratory analysis of the relative contribution of single MHC genes to the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) in a homogenous white population. METHODS: MHC class II alleles and C4 allotypes were determined in 64 SLE patients and in ethnically matched controls. HLA-DR and DQ typing was performed by polymerase chain reaction amplification with sequence specific primers. C4 allotypes were determined by agarose gel electrophoresis. RESULTS: The frequency of C4A*Q0 was significantly higher in patients than in controls (46.9% v 25.3%, p = 0.002). HLA-DRB1, DQA1, and DQB1 alleles in the whole group of SLE patients were not significantly different from those of controls. On the other hand increase in DRB1*03 was observed in the group of patients with C4A*Q0, as compared with patients with other C4A allotypes (p = 0.047). There was no significant correlation between severe and mild disease, as judged by the SLEDAI, and HLADR, DQ alleles and comparing the patients with C4A*Q0 with those with other C4A allotypes there was no significant difference regarding clinical manifestations. CONCLUSION: The results are consistent with the argument that C4A deficiency contributes independently to susceptibility and the pathogenesis of SLE. C4A*Q0 in SLE patients in Iceland shows weaker linkage disequilibrium with DR3 genes than reported in most other white populations and emphasises the role of ethnicity.

Genome-wide TDT analysis in a localized population with a high prevalence of multiple sclerosis indicates the importance of a region on chromosome 14q.

Epidemiological studies show that susceptibility to multiple sclerosis (MS) has a strong genetic component, but apart from the HLA gene complex, additional genetic factors have proven difficult to map in the general population. Thus, localized populations, where MS patients are assumed to be more closely related, may offer a better opportunity to identify shared chromosomal regions. We have performed a genome-wide scan with 834 microsatellite markers in a data set consisting of 54 MS patients and 114 healthy family members. A group of families from a small village were possible to track back to common ancestors living in the 17th century. We used single marker- and haplotype-based transmission disequilibrium test (TDT) analysis and nonparametric linkage analysis to analyze genotyping data. Regions on chromosomes 2q23-31, 6p24-21, 6q25-27, 14q24-32, 16p13-12 and 17q12-24 were found to be in transmission disequilibrium with MS. Strong transmission disequilibrium was detected in 14q24-32, where several dimarker haplotypes were in transmission disequilibrium in affected individuals. Several regions showed modest evidence for linkage, but linkage and TDT were both clearly positive only for 17q12-24. All patients and controls were also typed for HLA class II genes; however, no evidence for a gene-gene interaction was observed.

A spectrum of mutations in the second gene for autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (PKD2).

Recently the second gene for autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD), located on chromosome 4q21-q22, has been cloned and characterized. The gene encodes an integral membrane protein, polycystin-2, that shows amino acid similarity to the PKD1 gene product and to the family of voltage-activated calcium (and sodium) channels. We have systematically screened the gene for mutations by single-strand conformation-polymorphism analysis in 35 families with the second type of ADPKD and have identified 20 mutations. So far, most mutations found seem to be unique and occur throughout the gene, without any evidence of clustering. In addition to small deletions, insertions, and substitutions leading to premature translation stops, one amino acid substitution and five possible splice-site mutations have been found. These findings suggest that the first step toward cyst formation in PKD2 patients is the loss of one functional copy of polycystin-2.

Aberrant splicing in the PKD2 gene as a cause of polycystic kidney disease.

It is estimated that approximately 15% of families with autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) have mutations in PKD2. Identification of these mutations is central to identifying functionally important regions of gene and to understanding the mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of the disorder. The current study describes mutations in six type 2 ADPKD families. Two single base substitution mutations discovered in the ORF in exon 14 constitute the most COOH-terminal pathogenic variants described to date. One of these mutations is a nonsense change and the other encodes an apparent missense variant. Reverse transcription-PCR from patient lymphoblast RNA showed that, in addition, both mutations resulted in out-of-frame splice variants by activating cryptic splice sites via different mechanisms. The apparent missense variant produced such a strong splicing signal that the processed transcript from the mutant chromosome did not contain any of the normally spliced, missense product. A third mutation, a nonconservative missense change effecting a negatively charged residue in the third transmembrane span, is likely pathogenic and defines a highly conserved residue consistent with a potential channel subunit function for polycystin-2. The remaining three mutations included two frame shifts resulting from deletion of one or two bases in exons 6 and 10, respectively, and a nonsense mutation due to a single base substitution in exon 4. The study also defined a novel intragenic polymorphism in exon 1 that will be useful in analyzing "second hits" in PKD2. Finally, the study demonstrates that there are reduced levels of normal polycystin-2 protein in lymphoblast lines from PKD2-affected individuals and that truncated mutant polycystin-2 cannot be detected in patient lymphoblasts, suggesting that the latter may be unstable in at least some tissues. The mutations described will serve as critical reagents for future functional studies in PKD2.