Minimalist Tetrazine N-Acetyl Muramic Acid Probes for Rapid and Efficient Labeling of Commensal and Pathogenic Peptidoglycans in Living Bacterial Culture and During Macrophage Invasion.

N-Acetyl muramic acid (NAM) probes containing alkyne or azide groups are commonly used to investigate aspects of cell wall synthesis because of their small size and ability to incorporate into bacterial peptidoglycan (PG). However, copper-catalyzed alkyne-azide cycloaddition (CuAAC) reactions are not compatible with live cells, and strain-promoted alkyne-azide cycloaddition (SPAAC) reaction rates are modest and, therefore, not as desirable for tracking the temporal alterations of bacterial cell growth, remodeling, and division. Alternatively, the tetrazine-trans-cyclooctene ligation (Tz-TCO), which is the fastest known bioorthogonal reaction and not cytotoxic, allows for rapid live-cell labeling of PG at biologically relevant time scales and concentrations. Previous work to increase reaction kinetics on the PG surface by using tetrazine probes was limited because of low incorporation of the probe. Described here are new approaches to construct a minimalist tetrazine (Tz)-NAM probe utilizing recent advancements in asymmetric tetrazine synthesis. This minimalist Tz-NAM probe was successfully incorporated into pathogenic and commensal bacterial PG where fixed and rapid live-cell, no-wash labeling was successful in both free bacterial cultures and in coculture with human macrophages. Overall, this probe allows for expeditious labeling of bacterial PG, thereby making it an exceptional tool for monitoring PG biosynthesis for the development of new antibiotic screens. The versatility and selectivity of this probe will allow for real-time interrogation of the interactions of bacterial pathogens in a human host and will serve a broader utility for studying glycans in multiple complex biological systems.

Acute Beetroot Juice Supplementation Has No Effect on Upper- and Lower-Body Maximal Isokinetic Strength and Muscular Endurance in International-Level Male Gymnasts.

Nitrate (NO3-) has properties that can improve muscle function, leading to improvements in metabolic cost of exercise as well as enhance force production. Gymnastics is a whole-body sport, involving events that demand a high level of strength and fatigue resistance. However, the effect of NO3- supplementation on both upper- and lower-body function in gymnasts is unknown. This study examined the effect of acute beetroot juice (BRJ) supplementation on isokinetic strength and endurance of the upper- and lower-body in highly trained international-level male gymnasts. In a double-blind, randomized crossover design, 10 international-level male gymnasts completed two acute supplementation periods, consuming either 2 × 70 ml NO3--rich (∼12.8 mmol/L of NO3-) or NO3--depleted (PLA) BRJ. Maximal strength of the upper-leg and upper-arm at 60°/s, 120°/s, 180°/s, and 300°/s, and muscular endurance (50 repeated isokinetic contractions at 180°/s) were assessed. Plasma NO3- (BRJ: 663 ± 164 µM, PLA: 89 ± 48 µM) and nitrite (NO2-) concentrations (BRJ: 410 ± 137 nmol/L, PLA: 125 ± 36 nmol/L) were elevated following BRJ compared to PLA (both p < .001). Maximal strength of knee and elbow extensors and flexors did not differ between supplements (p > .05 for all velocities). Similarly, fatigue index of knee and elbow extension and flexion was not different between supplements (all p > .05). Acute BRJ supplementation, containing ∼12.8 mmol/L of NO3-, increased plasma NO3- and NO2- concentrations, but did not enhance isokinetic strength or fatigue resistance of either upper or lower extremities in international-level male gymnasts.

Ligand-Directed Photocatalysts and Far-Red Light Enable Catalytic Bioorthogonal Uncaging inside Live Cells.

Described are ligand-directed catalysts for live-cell, photocatalytic activation of bioorthogonal chemistry. Catalytic groups are localized via a tethered ligand either to DNA or to tubulin, and red light (660 nm) photocatalysis is used to initiate a cascade of DHTz oxidation, intramolecular Diels-Alder reaction, and elimination to release phenolic compounds. Silarhodamine (SiR) dyes, more conventionally used as biological fluorophores, serve as photocatalysts that have high cytocompatibility and produce minimal singlet oxygen. Commercially available conjugates of Hoechst dye (SiR-H) and docetaxel (SiR-T) are used to localize SiR to the nucleus and microtubules, respectively. Computation was used to assist the design of a new class of redox-activated photocage to release either phenol or n-CA4, a microtubule-destabilizing agent. In model studies, uncaging is complete within 5 min using only 2 µM SiR and 40 µM photocage. In situ spectroscopic studies support a mechanism involving rapid intramolecular Diels-Alder reaction and a rate-determining elimination step. In cellular studies, this uncaging process is successful at low concentrations of both the photocage (25 nM) and the SiR-H dye (500 nM). Uncaging n-CA4 causes microtubule depolymerization and an accompanying reduction in cell area. Control studies demonstrate that SiR-H catalyzes uncaging inside the cell, and not in the extracellular environment. With SiR-T, the same dye serves as a photocatalyst and the fluorescent reporter for microtubule depolymerization, and with confocal microscopy, it was possible to visualize microtubule depolymerization in real time as the result of photocatalytic uncaging in live cells.

Thiomethyltetrazines Are Reversible Covalent Cysteine Warheads Whose Dynamic Behavior can be "Switched Off" via Bioorthogonal Chemistry Inside Live Cells.

Electrophilic small molecules that can reversibly modify proteins are of growing interest in drug discovery. However, the ability to study reversible covalent probes in live cells can be limited by their reversible reactivity after cell lysis and in proteomic workflows, leading to scrambling and signal loss. We describe how thiomethyltetrazines function as reversible covalent warheads for cysteine modification, and this dynamic labeling behavior can be "switched off" via bioorthogonal chemistry inside live cells. Simultaneously, the tetrazine serves as a bioorthogonal reporter enabling the introduction of tags for fluorescent imaging or affinity purification. Thiomethyltetrazines can label isolated proteins, proteins in cellular lysates, and proteins in live cells with second-order rate constants spanning 2 orders of magnitude (k2, 1-100 M-1 s-1). Reversible modification by thiomethyltetrazines can be switched off upon the addition of trans-cyclooctene in live cells, converting the dynamic thiomethyltetrazine tag into a Diels-Alder adduct which is stable to lysis and proteomic workflows. Time-course quenching experiments were used to demonstrate temporal control over electrophilic modification. Moreover, it is shown that "locking in" the tag through Diels-Alder chemistry enables the identification of protein targets that are otherwise lost during sample processing. Three probes were further evaluated to identify unique pathways in a live-cell proteomic study. We anticipate that discovery efforts will be enabled by the trifold function of thiomethyltetrazines as electrophilic warheads, bioorthogonal reporters, and switches for "locking in" stability.

Catalytic Activation of Bioorthogonal Chemistry with Light (CABL) Enables Rapid, Spatiotemporally Controlled Labeling and No-Wash, Subcellular 3D-Patterning in Live Cells Using Long Wavelength Light.

Described is the spatiotemporally controlled labeling and patterning of biomolecules in live cells through the catalytic activation of bioorthogonal chemistry with light, referred to as "CABL". Here, an unreactive dihydrotetrazine (DHTz) is photocatalytically oxidized in the intracellular environment by ambient O2 to produce a tetrazine that immediately reacts with a trans-cyclooctene (TCO) dienophile. 6-(2-Pyridyl)dihydrotetrazine-3-carboxamides were developed as stable, cell permeable DHTz reagents that upon oxidation produce the most reactive tetrazines ever used in live cells with Diels-Alder kinetics exceeding k2 of 106 M-1 s-1. CABL photocatalysts are based on fluorescein or silarhodamine dyes with activation at 470 or 660 nm. Strategies for limiting extracellular production of singlet oxygen are described that increase the cytocompatibility of photocatalysis. The HaloTag self-labeling platform was used to introduce DHTz tags to proteins localized in the nucleus, mitochondria, actin, or cytoplasm, and high-yielding subcellular activation and labeling with a TCO-fluorophore were demonstrated. CABL is light-dose dependent, and two-photon excitation promotes CABL at the suborganelle level to selectively pattern live cells under no-wash conditions. CABL was also applied to spatially resolved live-cell labeling of an endogenous protein target by using TIRF microscopy to selectively activate intracellular monoacylglycerol lipase tagged with DHTz-labeled small molecule covalent inhibitor. Beyond spatiotemporally controlled labeling, CABL also improves the efficiency of "ordinary" tetrazine ligations by rescuing the reactivity of commonly used 3-aryl-6-methyltetrazine reporters that become partially reduced to DHTzs inside cells. The spatiotemporal control and fast rates of photoactivation and labeling of CABL should enable a range of biomolecular labeling applications in living systems.

Tunable Synthesis of Hydrogel Microfibers via Interfacial Tetrazine Ligation.

Crosslinked, degradable, and cell-adhesive hydrogel microfibers were synthesized via interfacial polymerization employing tetrazine ligation, an exceptionally fast bioorthogonal reaction between strained trans-cyclooctene (TCO) and s-tetrazine (Tz). A hydrophobic trisTCO crosslinker and homo-difunctional poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-based macromers with the tetrazine group conjugated to PEG via a stable carbamate (PEG-bisTz1) bond or a labile hydrazone (PEG-bisTz2) linkage were synthesized. After laying an ethyl acetate solution of trisTCO over an aqueous solution of bisTz macromers, mechanically robust microfibers were continuously pulled from the oil-water interface. The resultant microfibers exhibited comparable mechanical and thermal properties but different aqueous stability. Combining PEG-bisTz2 and PEG-bisTz3 with a dangling arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD) peptide in the aqueous phase yielded degradable fibers that supported the attachment and growth of primary vocal fold fibroblasts. The degradable and cell-adhesive hydrogel microfibers are expected to find utility in a wide array of tissue engineering applications.

Observation Versus Cast Treatment of Toddler's Fractures.

BACKGROUND: Nondisplaced metaphyseal fractures of the distal tibia, or toddler's fractures, are one of the most common pediatric injuries. Healing typically occurs quickly without sequelae. Treatment ranges from long leg cast immobilization to observation. This study compares short-term clinical and radiographic outcomes of toddler's fractures treated with long leg casting versus observation. METHODS: Patients with toddler's fractures were offered enrollment and randomization at diagnosis. Because many families opposed randomization, a preference arm was added after one year. All subjects were analyzed as a prospective cohort. Radiographs were obtained at diagnosis and 4 weeks. A modified Oxford Ankle Foot Questionnaire for Children (OAFQ-C) and family satisfaction survey were collected at diagnosis, 4 and 8 weeks. Scores were analyzed using mixed effect models. Family satisfaction surveys were compared using a Wilcoxon rank sum test. RESULTS: Forty-four subjects participated in the study, 34 (77%) in the preference arm and 10 (23%) in the randomized cohort. The median patient age was comparable between the cast and the observation groups, 2.0 versus 1.8 years, respectively. Significant improvement in OAFQ-C scores was observed in both groups over 8 weeks (P<0.01). Patients in the observation group had a higher initial play score than the cast group (P=0.03). The observation group trended toward higher physical scores at all time points (P=0.11). There was no significant difference in emotional scores between groups (P=0.77). No displacement was observed in any patient. Casted patients had significantly more minor complications with 4 patients requiring cast change or removal compared with 0 in the observed group (P=0.01). At 8 weeks, 80% of parents in the cast group were likely or very likely to choose the same treatment compared with 95.6% in the observation group. Family satisfaction scores did not differ between groups (P=0.18). They demonstrated differences in perceived normal walking at 4 weeks, with 50% of casted patients walking normally compared with 92% of observed patients. Over 90% of patients in both groups were reportedly walking normally at week 8. CONCLUSION: Observation of toddler's fractures results in equivalent clinical and radiographic outcomes, high family satisfaction and fewer complications compared with treatment with a long leg cast. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level II.

Affinity Bioorthogonal Chemistry (ABC) Tags for Site-Selective Conjugation, On-Resin Protein-Protein Coupling, and Purification of Protein Conjugates.

The site-selective functionalization of proteins has broad application in chemical biology, but can be limited when mixtures result from incomplete conversion or the formation of protein containing side products. It is shown here that when proteins are covalently tagged with pyridyl-tetrazines, the nickel-iminodiacetate (Ni-IDA) resins commonly used for His-tags can be directly used for protein affinity purification. These Affinity Bioorthogonal Chemistry (ABC) tags serve a dual role by enabling affinity-based protein purification while maintaining rapid kinetics in bioorthogonal reactions. ABC-tagging works with a range of site-selective bioconjugation methods with proteins tagged at the C-terminus, N-terminus or at internal positions. ABC-tagged proteins can also be purified from complex mixtures including cell lysate. The combination of site-selective conjugation and clean-up with ABC-tagged proteins also allows for facile on-resin reactions to provide protein-protein conjugates.

Enabling In Vivo Photocatalytic Activation of Rapid Bioorthogonal Chemistry by Repurposing Silicon-Rhodamine Fluorophores as Cytocompatible Far-Red Photocatalysts.

Chromophores that absorb in the tissue-penetrant far-red/near-infrared window have long served as photocatalysts to generate singlet oxygen for photodynamic therapy. However, the cytotoxicity and side reactions associated with singlet oxygen sensitization have posed a problem for using long-wavelength photocatalysis to initiate other types of chemical reactions in biological environments. Herein, silicon-Rhodamine compounds (SiRs) are described as photocatalysts for inducing rapid bioorthogonal chemistry using 660 nm light through the oxidation of a dihydrotetrazine to a tetrazine in the presence of trans-cyclooctene dienophiles. SiRs have been commonly used as fluorophores for bioimaging but have not been applied to catalyze chemical reactions. A series of SiR derivatives were evaluated, and the Janelia Fluor-SiR dyes were found to be especially effective in catalyzing photooxidation (typically 3%). A dihydrotetrazine/tetrazine pair is described that displays high stability in both oxidation states. A protein that was site-selectively modified by trans-cyclooctene was quantitatively conjugated upon exposure to 660 nm light and a dihydrotetrazine. By contrast, a previously described methylene blue catalyst was found to rapidly degrade the protein. SiR-red light photocatalysis was used to cross-link hyaluronic acid derivatives functionalized by dihydrotetrazine and trans-cyclooctenes, enabling 3D culture of human prostate cancer cells. Photoinducible hydrogel formation could also be carried out in live mice through subcutaneous injection of a Cy7-labeled hydrogel precursor solution, followed by brief irradiation to produce a stable hydrogel. This cytocompatible method for using red light photocatalysis to activate bioorthogonal chemistry is anticipated to find broad applications where spatiotemporal control is needed in biological environments.

General, Divergent Platform for Diastereoselective Synthesis of trans-Cyclooctenes with High Reactivity and Favorable Physiochemical Properties*.

trans-Cyclooctenes (TCOs) are essential partners in the fastest known bioorthogonal reactions, but current synthetic methods are limited by poor diastereoselectivity. Especially hard to access are hydrophilic TCOs with favorable physicochemical properties for live cell or in vivo experiments. Described is a new class of TCOs, "a-TCOs", prepared in high yield by stereocontrolled 1,2-additions of nucleophiles to trans-cyclooct-4-enone, which itself was prepared on a large scale in two steps from 1,5-cyclooctadiene. Computational transition-state models rationalize the diastereoselectivity of 1,2-additions to deliver a-TCO products, which were also shown to be more reactive than standard TCOs and less hydrophobic than even a trans-oxocene analogue. Illustrating the favorable physicochemical properties of a-TCOs, a fluorescent TAMRA derivative in live HeLa cells was shown to be cell-permeable through intracellular Diels-Alder chemistry and to wash out more rapidly than other TCOs.

Improving Tumor-to-Background Contrast through Hydrophilic Tetrazines: The Construction of 18 F-Labeled PET Agents Targeting Nonsmall Cell Lung Carcinoma.

Bioorthogonal reactions have been widely used in the biomedical field. 18 F-TCO/Tetrazine ligation is the most reactive radiolabelled inverse electron demand Diels-Alder reaction, but its application had been limited due to modest contrast ratios of the resulting conjugates. Herein, we describe the use of hydrophilic tetrazines to improve tumor-to-background contrast of neurotensin receptor targeted PET agents. PET agents were constructed using a rapid Diels-Alder reaction of the radiolabeled trans-cyclooctene (18 F-sTCO) with neurotensin (NT) conjugates of a 3,6-diaryltetrazine, 3-methyl-6-aryltetrazine, and a derivative of 3,6-di(2-hydroxyethyl)tetrazine. Although cell binding assays demonstrated all agents have comparable binding affinity, the conjugate derived from 3,6-di(2-hydroxyethyl)tetrazine demonstrated the highest tumor to muscle contrast, followed by conjugates of the 3-methyl-6-aryltetrazine and 3,6-diaryltetrazine.

Flow Photochemical Syntheses of trans-Cyclooctenes and trans-Cycloheptenes Driven by Metal Complexation.

trans-Cyclooctenes and trans-cycloheptenes have long been the subject of physical organic study, but the broader application had been limited by synthetic accessibility. This account describes the development of a general, flow photochemical method for the preparative synthesis of trans-cycloalkene derivatives. Here, photoisom erization takes place in a closed-loop flow reactor where the reaction mixture is continuously cycled through Ag(I) on silica gel. Selective complexation of the trans-isomer by Ag(I) during flow drives an otherwise unfavorable isomeric ratio toward the trans-isomer. Analogous photoreactions under batch-conditions are low yielding, and flow chemistry is necessary in order to obtain trans-cycloalkenes in preparatively useful yields. The applications of the method to bioorthogonal chemistry and stereospecific transannulation chemistry are described.

Divergent Synthesis of Monosubstituted and Unsymmetrical 3,6-Disubstituted Tetrazines from Carboxylic Ester Precursors.

Since tetrazines are important tools to the field of bioorthogonal chemistry, there is a need for new approaches to synthesize unsymmetrical and 3-monosubstituted tetrazines. Described here is a general, one-pot method for converting (3-methyloxetan-3-yl)methyl carboxylic esters into 3-thiomethyltetrazines. These versatile intermediates were applied to the synthesis of unsymmetrical tetrazines through Pd-catalyzed cross-coupling and in the first catalytic thioether reduction to access monosubstituted tetrazines. This method enables the development of new tetrazine compounds possessing a favorable combination of kinetics, small size, and hydrophilicity. It was applied to a broad range of aliphatic and aromatic ester precursors and to the synthesis of heterocycles including BODIPY fluorophores and biotin. In addition, a series of tetrazine probes for monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) were synthesized and the most reactive one was applied to the labeling of endogenous MAGL in live cells.

Installation of Minimal Tetrazines through Silver-Mediated Liebeskind-Srogl Coupling with Arylboronic Acids.

Described is a general method for the installation of a minimal 6-methyltetrazin-3-yl group via the first example of a Ag-mediated Liebeskind-Srogl cross-coupling. The attachment of bioorthogonal tetrazines on complex molecules typically relies on linkers that can negatively impact the physiochemical properties of conjugates. Cross-coupling with arylboronic acids and a new reagent, 3-((p-biphenyl-4-ylmethyl)thio)-6-methyltetrazine (b-Tz), proceeds under mild, PdCl2(dppf)-catalyzed conditions to introduce minimal, linker-free tetrazine functionality. Safety considerations guided our design of b-Tz which can be prepared on decagram scale without handling hydrazine and without forming volatile, high-nitrogen tetrazine byproducts. Replacing conventional Cu(I) salts used in Liebeskind-Srogl cross-coupling with a Ag2O mediator resulted in higher yields across a broad library of aryl and heteroaryl boronic acids and provides improved access to a fluorogenic tetrazine-BODIPY conjugate. A covalent probe for MAGL incorporating 6-methyltetrazinyl functionality was synthesized in high yield and labeled endogenous MAGL in live cells. This new Ag-mediated cross-coupling method using b-Tz is anticipated to find additional applications for directly introducing the tetrazine subunit to complex substrates.

Dual-Reactivity trans-Cyclooctenol Probes for Sulfenylation in Live Cells Enable Temporal Control via Bioorthogonal Quenching.

Sulfenylation (RSH → RSOH) is a post-translational protein modification associated with cellular mechanisms for signal transduction and the regulation of reactive oxygen species. Protein sulfenic acids are challenging to identify and study due to their electrophilic and transient nature. Described here are sulfenic acid modifying trans-cycloocten-5-ol (SAM-TCO) probes for labeling sulfenic acid functionality in live cells. These probes enable a new mode of capturing sulfenic acids via transannular thioetherification, whereas "ordinary" trans-cyclooctenes react only slowly with sulfenic acids. SAM-TCOs combine with sulfenic acid forms of a model peptide and proteins to form stable adducts. Analogously, SAM-TCO with the selenenic acid form of a model protein leads to a selenoetherification product. Control experiments illustrate the need for the transannulation process coupled with the activated trans-cycloalkene functionality. Bioorthogonal quenching of excess unreacted SAM-TCOs with tetrazines in live cells provides both temporal control and a means of preventing artifacts caused by cellular-lysis. A SAM-TCO biotin conjugate was used to label protein sulfenic acids in live cells, and subsequent quenching by tetrazine prevented further labeling even under harshly oxidizing conditions. A cell-based proteomic study validates the ability of SAM-TCO probes to identify and quantify known sulfenic acid redox proteins as well as targets not captured by dimedone-based probes.

Studies on the Stability and Stabilization of trans-Cyclooctenes through Radical Inhibition and Silver (I) Metal Complexation.

Conformationally strained trans-cyclooctenes (TCOs) engage in bioorthogonal reactions with tetrazines with second order rate constants that can exceed 106 M-1s-1. The goal of this study was to provide insight into the stability of TCO reagents and to develop methods for stabilizing TCO reagents for long-term storage. The radical inhibitor Trolox suppresses TCO isomerization under high thiol concentrations and TCO shelf-life can be greatly extended by protecting them as stable Ag(I) metal complexes. 1H NMR studies show that Ag-complexation is thermodynamically favorable but the kinetics of dissociation are very rapid, and TCO•AgNO3 complexes are immediately dissociated upon addition of NaCl which is present in high concentration in cell media. The AgNO3 complex of a highly reactive s-TCO-TAMRA conjugate was shown to label a protein-tetrazine conjugate in live cells with faster kinetics and similar labeling yield relative to a 'traditional' TCO-TAMRA conjugate.

Stereoselective Synthesis of Bicyclo[6.1.0]nonene Precursors of the Bioorthogonal Reagents s-TCO and BCN.

The cyclooctyne BCN and the trans-cyclooctene s-TCO are widely used in bioorthogonal chemistry. A bottleneck for their synthesis had been a poorly selective cyclopropanation with ethyl diazoacetate. Here, we describe that low catalyst loadings (0.27 mol %) of Rh2( S-BHTL)4 provide the BCN precursor with 79:21 syn/ anti selectivity. The synthesis of the s-TCO precursor was best achieved through a sequence of Rh2(OAc)4 (0.33 mol %)-catalyzed cyclopropanation, followed by ester hydrolysis under epimerizing conditions. Both sequences could be carried out on multigram scale.

Fast, irreversible modification of cysteines through strain releasing conjugate additions of cyclopropenyl ketones.

A method of cysteine alkylation using cyclopropenyl ketones is described. Due to the significant release of cyclopropene strain energy, reactions of thiols with cyclopropenyl ketones are both fast and irreversible and give rise to stable conjugate addition adducts. The resulting cyclopropenyl ketones have a low molecular weight and allow for simple attachment of amides via N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS)-esters. While cyclopropenyl ketones do display slow background reactivity toward water, labeling by thiols is much more rapid. The reaction of a cyclopropenyl ketone with glutathione (GSH) proceeds with a rate of 595 M-1 s-1 in PBS at pH 7.4, which is considerably faster than α-halocarbonyl labeling reagents, and competitive with maleimide/thiol couplings. The method has been demonstrated in protein conjugation, and an arylthiolate conjugate was shown to be stable upon prolonged incubation in either GSH or human plasma. Finally, cyclopropenyl ketones were used to create PEG-based hydrogels that are stable to prolonged incubation in a reducing environment.

Rh-Catalyzed Intermolecular Reactions of α-Alkyl-α-Diazo Carbonyl Compounds with Selectivity over ß-Hydride Migration.

Rh-carbenes derived from α-diazocarbonyl compounds have found broad utility across a remarkable range of reactivity, including cyclopropanation, cyclopropenation, C-H insertions, heteroatom-hydrogen insertions, and ylide forming reactions. However, in contrast to α-aryl or α-vinyl-α-diazocarbonyl compounds, the utility of α-alkyl-α-diazocarbonyl compounds had been moderated by the propensity of such compounds to undergo intramolecular ß-hydride migration to give alkene products. Especially challenging had been intermolecular reactions involving α-alkyl-α-diazocarbonyl compounds. This Account discusses the historical context and prior limitations of Rh-catalyzed reactions involving α-alkyl-α-diazocarbonyl compounds. Early studies demonstrated that ligand and temperature effects could influence chemoselectivity over ß-hydride migration. However, effects were modest and conflicting conclusions had been drawn about the influence of sterically demanding ligands on ß-hydride migration. More recent advances have led to a more detailed understanding of the reaction conditions that can promote intermolecular reactivity in preference to ß-hydride migration. In particular, the use of bulky carboxylate ligands and low reaction temperatures have been key to enabling intermolecular cyclopropenation, cyclopropanation, carbonyl ylide formation/dipolar cycloaddition, indole C-H functionalization, and intramolecular bicyclobutanation with high chemoselectivity over ß-hydride migration. Cyclic α-diazocarbonyl compounds have been shown to be particularly resilient toward ß-hydride migration and are the first class of compounds that can engage in intermolecular reactivity in the presence of tertiary ß-hydrogens. DFT calculations were used to propose that for cyclic α-diazocarbonyl compounds, ring constraints relieve steric interaction for intermolecular reactions and thereby accelerate the rate of intermolecular reactivity relative to intramolecular ß-hydride migration. Enantioselective reactions of α-alkyl-α-diazocarbonyl compounds have been developed using bimetallic N-imido-tert-leucinate-derived complexes. The most effective complexes were found by computation and X-ray crystallography to adopt a "chiral crown" conformation in which all of the imido groups are presented on one face of the paddlewheel complex in a chiral arrangement. Insight from computational studies guided the design and synthesis of a mixed ligand paddlewheel complex, Rh2(S-PTTL)3TPA, the structure of which bears similarity to the chiral crown complex Rh2(S-PTTL)4. Rh2(S-PTTL)3TPA engages substrate classes (aliphatic alkynes, silylacetylenes, α-olefins) that are especially challenging in intermolecular reactions of α-alkyl-α-diazoesters and catalyzes enantioselective cyclopropanation, cyclopropenation, and indole C-H functionalization with yields and enantioselectivities that are comparable or superior to Rh2(S-PTTL)4. The work detailed in this Account describes progress toward enabling a more general utility for α-alkyl-α-diazo compounds in Rh-catalyzed carbene reactions. Further studies on ligand design and synthesis will continue to broaden the scope of their selective reactions.

Synthesis of Benzodihydrofurans by Asymmetric C-H Insertion Reactions of Donor/Donor Rhodium Carbenes.

Metal carbenes appended with two electron-donating groups, known as "donor/donor" carbenes, undergo diastereo- and enantioselective rhodium-catalyzed C-H insertion reactions with ether substrates to form benzodihydrofurans. Unlike the reactions of metal carbenes with electron-withdrawing groups attached, the attenuated electrophilicity enables these reactions to be conducted in Lewis basic solvents (e.g., acetonitrile) and in the presence of water. The diazo precursors for these species are prepared in situ from hydrazone using a mild and chemoselective oxidant (MnO2 ). Although this sequence often can be performed in one-pot, control experiments have elucidated why a "two-pot" process is often more efficient. A thorough screening of achiral catalysts demonstrated that sterically encumbered catalysts are optimal for diastereoselective reactions. Although efficient insertion into allylic and propargylic C-H bonds is observed, competing dipolar cycloaddition processes are noted for some substrates. The full substrate scope of this useful method of benzodihydrofuran synthesis, mechanisms of side reactions, and computational support for the origins of stereoselectivity are described.