The taxonomic foundation, species circumscription and continental endemisms of Singerocybe: evidence from morphological and molecular data.

The genus Singerocybe (Tricholomataceae, Agaricales, Basidiomycota) has been the subject of controversy since its proposal in 1988. Its taxonomic foundation, species circumscription and geographical distribution have not yet been examined with molecular sequence data. In this study phylogenetic analyses on this group of fungi were conducted based on collections from Europe, eastern Asia, southern Asia, North America and Australia, with four nuclear markers, ITS, nrLSU, tef1-α and rpb2. Molecular phylogenetic analyses, together with morphological observations, strongly support Singerocybe as a monophyletic group and identify the vesicles in the pileal and stipe cuticle as a synapomorphy of this genus. Seven species are recognized in the genus, including one new species and four new combinations. Clitocybe trogioides and Clitocybe trogioides var. odorifera are synonyms of Singerocybe humilis and Singerocybe alboinfundibuliformis respectively. Most of these species are geographically restricted in their distributions. Furthermore our study expands the distribution range of Singerocybe from the North Temperate Zone to Australia (Tasmania) and tropical southern Asia.

Two new species of Exidia sensu lato (Auriculariales, Basidiomycota) based on morphology and DNA sequences.

In the present study, fourteen Exidia-like specimens were collected from China, France, and Australia. Based on morphological characteristics and phylogenetic analyses using the internal transcribed spacer regions (ITS) and the large subunit of nuclear ribosomal RNA gene (nLSU), four species in Exidia sensu lato, including Exidia saccharina and Tremellochaete atlantica, and two new species, Exidia subsaccharina and Tremellochaete australiensis, were identified. The four species are described and illustrated in detail. E. saccharina and T. atlantica, two known species from China are reported for the first time. E. subsaccharina and T. australiensis, two new species from France and Australia, respectively are also described. E. subsaccharina is characterized by its reddish brown to vinaceous brown basidiomata, slightly papillate hymenial surface, and narrowly allantoid basidiospores without oil drop measuring 12.5-17.5 × 4.2-5.5 µm. It differs from the similar species, E. saccharina, by distinctly larger basidiospores (12.5-17.5 × 4.2-5.5 vs. 10-14.2 × 3.2-4.5 µm). Tremellochaete australiensis is characterized by its white to grayish blue basidiomata, obviously and densely papillate hymenial surface, and allantoid basidiospores with oil drop measuring 13.8-16.2 × 4.8-6.5 µm. It also can be distinguished from the similar species, T. atlantica and T. japonica, by its distinctly larger basidiospores (13.5-17.8 × 4-5.2 vs. 10-11.8 × 4-4.8 µm in T. atlantica; 9.4-11.8 × 3.5-4.2 µm in T. japonica).

Phylogeny and Diversity of the Genus Pseudohydnum (Auriculariales, Basidiomycota).

The toothed jelly fungus Pseudohydnum gelatinosum was originally described from Europe. The name has a broad sense and the species has been widely reported almost all over the world. We have studied samples of so-called P. gelatinosum from Asia and Oceania. Based on morphology, hosts, geography, and phylogenetic analysis using the internal transcribed spacer regions (ITSs) and the large subunit of nuclear ribosomal RNA gene (nLSU), four new species, P. himalayanum, P. orbiculare, P. sinogelatinosum, and P. tasmanicum, from China, New Zealand, and Australia are described and illustrated, and a new combination, Pseudohydnum totarae, is proposed. The five new taxa can be differentiated by the shape of their basidiomata, pileal surface color when fresh, spine size, basidiospore dimensions, shape of hyphidia, hosts, and biogeography. Phylogenetically, most of these taxa are distantly related, and different base pairs among these taxa mostly account for >2% nucleotides in the ITS regions.

Emending Gymnopus sect. Gymnopus (Agaricales, Omphalotaceae) by including two new species from southern China.

Based on phylogenetic analyses, some newly studied Chinese mushroom specimens were found to represent two distinct species within the genus Gymnopus. Along with G.fusipes (sect. Gymnopus) they form a distinct clade with high support, although their macromorphological characters seem to be closer to members of Gymnopus sect. Levipedes or sect. Vestipedes (Collybiopsis). When examined in detail, their micromorphological characters, especially the type of pileipellis, support them as new members of G. sect. Gymnopus. Therefore, two new species, G.omphalinoides and G.schizophyllus, and the emended circumscription of sect. Gymnopus are proposed in this paper. Detailed morphological descriptions, colour photos, illustrations of the two new species, morphological comparisons with similar taxa and the molecular-phylogenetic analyses of the combined nrITS and nrLSU data are presented. A key to the known species of G. sect. Gymnopus is also presented.

Species Diversity and Molecular Phylogeny of Cyanosporus (Polyporales, Basidiomycota).

Cyanosporus is a cosmopolitan brown-rot fungal genus, recognizable by blue-tinted basidiocarps. Species in this genus were usually treated as belonging to the Postia caesia complex, however, recent phylogenetic analyses showed that this complex represents an independent genus. During further studies on Cyanosporus, five new species were discovered based on morphological features and molecular data. Phylogenetic analyses of Cyanosporus were conducted using the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions, the large subunit of nuclear ribosomal RNA gene (nLSU), the small subunit of nuclear ribosomal RNA gene (nSSU), the small subunit of mitochondrial rRNA gene (mtSSU), the largest subunit of RNA polymerase II (RPB1), the second largest subunit of RNA polymerase II (RPB2), and the translation elongation factor 1-α gene (TEF); illustrated descriptions of the new species are provided. In addition, fifteen species previously belonging to the Postia caesia complex are transferred to Cyanosporus and proposed as new combinations.

Ascomycetes associated with ectomycorrhizas: molecular diversity and ecology with particular reference to the Helotiales.

Mycorrhizosphere microbes enhance functioning of the plant-soil interface, but little is known of their ecology. This study aims to characterize the ascomycete communities associated with ectomycorrhizas in two Tasmanian wet sclerophyll forests. We hypothesize that both the phyto- and mycobiont, mantle type, soil microbiotope and geographical distance affect the diversity and occurrence of the associated ascomycetes. Using the culture-independent rDNA sequence analysis, we demonstrate a high diversity of these fungi on different hosts and habitats. Plant host has the strongest effect on the occurrence of the dominant species and community composition of ectomycorrhiza-associated fungi. Root endophytes, soil saprobes, myco-, phyto- and entomopathogens contribute to the ectomycorrhiza-associated ascomycete community. Taxonomically these Ascomycota mostly belong to the orders Helotiales, Hypocreales, Chaetothyriales and Sordariales. Members of Helotiales from both Tasmania and the Northern Hemisphere are phylogenetically closely related to root endophytes and ericoid mycorrhizal fungi, suggesting their strong ecological and evolutionary links. Ectomycorrhizal mycobionts from Australia and the Northern Hemisphere are taxonomically unrelated to each other and phylogenetically distant to other helotialean root-associated fungi, indicating independent evolution. The ubiquity and diversity of the secondary root-associated fungi should be considered in studies of mycorrhizal communities to avoid overestimating the richness of true symbionts.

Establishment of ectomycorrhizal fungal community on isolated Nothofagus cunninghamii seedlings regenerating on dead wood in Australian wet temperate forests: does fruit-body type matter?

Decaying wood provides an important habitat for animals and forms a seed bed for many shade-intolerant, small-seeded plants, particularly Nothofagus. Using morphotyping and rDNA sequence analysis, we compared the ectomycorrhizal fungal community of isolated N. cunninghamii seedlings regenerating in decayed wood against that of mature tree roots in the forest floor soil. The /cortinarius, /russula-lactarius, and /laccaria were the most species-rich and abundant lineages in forest floor soil in Australian sites at Yarra, Victoria and Warra, Tasmania. On root tips of seedlings in dead wood, a subset of the forest floor taxa were prevalent among them species of /laccaria, /tomentella-thelephora, and /descolea, but other forest floor dominants were rare. Statistical analyses suggested that the fungal community differs between forest floor soil and dead wood at the level of both species and phylogenetic lineage. The fungal species colonizing isolated seedlings on decayed wood in austral forests were taxonomically dissimilar to the species dominating in similar habitats in Europe. We conclude that formation of a resupinate fruit body type on the underside of decayed wood is not necessarily related to preferential root colonization in decayed wood. Rather, biogeographic factors as well as differential dispersal and competitive abilities of fungal taxa are likely to play a key role in structuring the ectomycorrhizal fungal community on isolated seedlings in decaying wood.

Type studies of Rossbeeverabispora, and a new species of Rossbeevera from south China.

The type of Rossbeeverabispora and additional collections from the type location and adjacent areas were studied. Molecular data for R.bispora derived from the new collections are provided. In addition, R.griseobrunnea, a new species of Rossbeevera, is described from Xiangtoushan National Nature Reserve, Guangdong Province of China. The new species is characterized by its globose to subglobose sequestrate basidiomata with grayish white to grayish brown pileus, pale bluish discoloration in some parts of the hymenophore when injured becoming rusty brown to dark brown after being exposed to the air, fusoid (star-shaped in cross section) basidiospores 17-20 × 9-12 µm, and subcutis elements in the pileus. Based on multi-locus (ITS+nrLSU+tef1-α+rpb2) molecular phylogenetic analyses, both species appear as sister to R.paracyanea. We present color photos, macro- and micro-description, SEM basidiospores, molecular affinities of the species and compare them with morphologically similar taxa within the genus. A key to the species known from northern and southern hemispheres is provided.

Dentipellistasmanica sp. nov. (Hericiaceae, Basidiomycota) from Australia.

Dentipellistasmanica sp. nov. is described and illustrated from Tasmania, Australia based on rDNA evidence and morphological characters. It is characterised by an annual growth habit; resupinate basidiocarps up to 100 cm long; spines cream when fresh and cinnamon when dry, up to 3 mm long and a few glued at tips when dry; distinct white fibrillous to cottony margin; a monomitic hyphal structure with non-amyloid, non-dextrinoid and cyanophilous generative hyphae; the presence of gloeoplerous hyphae and gloeocystidia which become dark blue in Melzer's reagent; the presence of chlamydospores in the subiculum and rough basidiospores measuring 3.5-4.5 × 2.4-3.2 µm. A molecular study based on the combined ITS (internal transcribed spacer region) and 28S (the large nuclear ribosomal RNA subunit) dataset supports the new species in Dentipellis. A key to species of Dentipellis sensu stricto is provided.

Two new species of Xanthagaricus and some notes on Heinemannomyces from Asia.

Xanthagaricus flavosquamosus and X. necopinatus, two new species of Agaricaceae, are described and illustrated from Asia. Macroscopically, both species are closely related to each other, but there are obvious micromorphological and molecular differences between them. Morphological and phylogenetic data showed that the two new species are distinct from other known species of the genus Xanthagaricus. Xanthagaricus flavosquamosus from China is characterized by its small, yellow basidiomata, short clavate cheilocystidia, epithelial pileipellis, and verrucose basidiospores measuring 5-5.5 × 3-3.5 µm. Xanthagaricus necopinatus from Bangladesh is characterized by having small, yellow basidiomata, a fugacious annulus, clavate to narrowly clavate cheilocystidia, epithelial pileipellis, and rugulose-rough basidiospores measuring 4-5 × 2.7-3.2 µm. In addition to the new species, a Heinemannomyces collection from China is reported. Morphological data and molecular phylogenetic analyses fully support the Chinese collection being Heinemannomyces splendidissimus, a species of Agaricaceae, originally described from Southeast Asia. Detailed descriptions, color photos and illustrations of the three species are presented. A key to the genus Xanthagaricus occurring in Bangladesh and China is provided.

Multilocus phylogenetic analyses reveal unexpected abundant diversity and significant disjunct distribution pattern of the Hedgehog Mushrooms (Hydnum L.).

Hydnum is a fungal genus proposed by Linnaeus in the early time of modern taxonomy. It contains several ectomycorrhizal species which are commonly consumed worldwide. However, Hydnum is one of the most understudied fungal genera, especially from a molecular phylogenetic view. In this study, we extensively gathered specimens of Hydnum from Asia, Europe, America and Australasia, and analyzed them by using sequences of four gene fragments (ITS, nrLSU, tef1α and rpb1). Our phylogenetic analyses recognized at least 31 phylogenetic species within Hydnum, 15 of which were reported for the first time. Most Australasian species were recognized as strongly divergent old relics, but recent migration between Australasia and the Northern Hemisphere was also detected. Within the Northern Hemisphere, frequent historical biota exchanges between the Old World and the New World via both the North Atlantic Land Bridge and the Bering Land Bridge could be elucidated. Our study also revealed that most Hydnum species found in subalpine areas of the Hengduan Mountains in southwestern China occur in northeastern/northern China and Europe, indicating that the composition of the mycobiota in the Hengduan Mountains reigion is more complicated than what we have known before.

Fungal biogeography. Global diversity and geography of soil fungi.

Fungi play major roles in ecosystem processes, but the determinants of fungal diversity and biogeographic patterns remain poorly understood. Using DNA metabarcoding data from hundreds of globally distributed soil samples, we demonstrate that fungal richness is decoupled from plant diversity. The plant-to-fungus richness ratio declines exponentially toward the poles. Climatic factors, followed by edaphic and spatial variables, constitute the best predictors of fungal richness and community composition at the global scale. Fungi show similar latitudinal diversity gradients to other organisms, with several notable exceptions. These findings advance our understanding of global fungal diversity patterns and permit integration of fungi into a general macroecological framework.