IRF-8 regulates expansion of myeloid-derived suppressor cells and Foxp3+ regulatory T cells and modulates Th2 immune responses to gastrointestinal nematode infection.

Interferon regulatory factor-8 (IRF-8) is critical for Th1 cell differentiation and negatively regulates myeloid cell development including myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC). MDSC expand during infection with various pathogens including the gastrointestinal (GI) nematode Heligmosomoides polygyrus bakeri (Hpb). We investigated if IRF-8 contributes to Th2 immunity to Hpb infection. Irf8 expression was down-regulated in MDSC from Hpb-infected C57BL/6 (B6) mice. IRF-8 deficient Irf8-/- and BXH-2 mice had significantly higher adult worm burdens than B6 mice after primary or challenge Hpb infection. During primary infection, MDSC expanded to a significantly greater extent in mesenteric lymph nodes (MLN) and spleens of Irf8-/- and BXH-2 than B6 mice. CD4+GATA3+ T cells numbers were comparable in MLN of infected B6 and IRF-8 deficient mice, but MLN cells from infected IRF-8 deficient mice secreted significantly less parasite-specific IL-4 ex vivo. The numbers of alternatively activated macrophages in MLN and serum levels of Hpb-specific IgG1 and IgE were also significantly less in infected Irf8-/- than B6 mice. The frequencies of antigen-experienced CD4+CD11ahiCD49dhi cells that were CD44hiCD62L- were similar in MLN of infected Irf8-/- and B6 mice, but the proportions of CD4+GATA3+ and CD4+IL-4+ T cells were lower in infected Irf8-/- mice. CD11b+Gr1+ cells from naïve or infected Irf8-/- mice suppressed CD4+ T cell proliferation and parasite-specific IL-4 secretion in vitro albeit less efficiently than B6 mice. Surprisingly, there were significantly more CD4+ T cells in infected Irf8-/- mice, with a higher frequency of CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ T (Tregs) cells and significantly higher numbers of Tregs than B6 mice. In vivo depletion of MDSC and/or Tregs in Irf8-/- mice did not affect adult worm burdens, but Treg depletion resulted in higher egg production and enhanced parasite-specific IL-5, IL-13, and IL-6 secretion ex vivo. Our data thus provide a previously unrecognized role for IRF-8 in Th2 immunity to a GI nematode.

Downregulation of the Syk Signaling Pathway in Intestinal Dendritic Cells Is Sufficient To Induce Dendritic Cells That Inhibit Colitis.

Helminthic infections modulate host immunity and may protect people in less-developed countries from developing immunological diseases. In a murine colitis model, the helminth Heligmosomoides polygyrus bakeri prevents colitis via induction of regulatory dendritic cells (DCs). The mechanism driving the development of these regulatory DCs is unexplored. There is decreased expression of the intracellular signaling pathway spleen tyrosine kinase (Syk) in intestinal DCs from H. polygyrus bakeri-infected mice. To explore the importance of this observation, it was shown that intestinal DCs from DC-specific Syk(-/-) mice were powerful inhibitors of murine colitis, suggesting that loss of Syk was sufficient to convert these cells into their regulatory phenotype. DCs sense gut flora and damaged epithelium via expression of C-type lectin receptors, many of which signal through the Syk signaling pathway. It was observed that gut DCs express mRNA encoding for C-type lectin (CLEC) 7A, CLEC9A, CLEC12A, and CLEC4N. H. polygyrus bakeri infection downmodulated CLEC mRNA expression in these cells. Focusing on CLEC7A, which encodes for the dectin-1 receptor, flow analysis showed that H. polygyrus bakeri decreases dectin-1 expression on the intestinal DC subsets that drive Th1/Th17 development. DCs become unresponsive to the dectin-1 agonist curdlan and fail to phosphorylate Syk after agonist stimulation. Soluble worm products can block CLEC7A and Syk mRNA expression in gut DCs from uninfected mice after a brief in vitro exposure. Thus, downmodulation of Syk expression and phosphorylation in intestinal DCs could be important mechanisms through which helminths induce regulatory DCs that limit colitis.

Excretory/secretory products from the gastrointestinal nematode Trichuris muris.

To better control gastrointestinal nematode infections in humans and animals, it is important to understand the strategies used by these parasites to modulate the host immune system. In this regard, molecules released by parasites have been attributed crucially important roles in host-parasite negotiations. We characterized the excretory/secretory (E/S) microRNA (miRNA) and protein profiles from the mouse gastrointestinal nematode parasite Trichuris muris. Released miRNAs were subjected to miRNA sequencing and E/S proteins were analysed by mass spectrometry. Fourteen miRNAs were identified in T. muris exosome-like vesicles, as well as 73 proteins of nematode origin, 11 of which were unique to this study. Comparison with published nematode protein secretomes revealed high conservation at the functional level.

Molecular cloning and characterization of novel glutamate-gated chloride channel subunits from Schistosoma mansoni.

Cys-loop ligand-gated ion channels (LGICs) mediate fast ionotropic neurotransmission. They are proven drug targets in nematodes and arthropods, but are poorly characterized in flatworms. In this study, we characterized the anion-selective, non-acetylcholine-gated Cys-loop LGICs from Schistosoma mansoni. Full-length cDNAs were obtained for SmGluCl-1 (Smp_096480), SmGluCl-2 (Smp_015630) and SmGluCl-3 (Smp_104890). A partial cDNA was retrieved for SmGluCl-4 (Smp_099500/Smp_176730). Phylogenetic analyses suggest that SmGluCl-1, SmGluCl-2, SmGluCl-3 and SmGluCl-4 belong to a novel clade of flatworm glutamate-gated chloride channels (GluCl) that includes putative genes from trematodes and cestodes. The flatworm GluCl clade was distinct from the nematode-arthropod and mollusc GluCl clades, and from all GABA receptors. We found no evidence of GABA receptors in S. mansoni. SmGluCl-1, SmGluCl-2 and SmGluCl-3 subunits were characterized by two-electrode voltage clamp (TEVC) in Xenopus oocytes, and shown to encode Cl⁻-permeable channels gated by glutamate. SmGluCl-2 and SmGluCl-3 produced functional homomers, while SmGluCl-1 formed heteromers with SmGluCl-2. Concentration-response relationships revealed that the sensitivity of SmGluCl receptors to L-glutamate is among the highest reported for GluCl receptors, with EC50 values of 7-26 µM. Chloride selectivity was confirmed by current-voltage (I/V) relationships. SmGluCl receptors are insensitive to 1 µM ivermectin (IVM), indicating that they do not belong to the highly IVM-sensitive GluClα subtype group. SmGluCl receptors are also insensitive to 10 µM meclonazepam, a schistosomicidal benzodiazepine. These results provide the first molecular evidence showing the contribution of GluCl receptors to L-glutamate signaling in S. mansoni, an unprecedented finding in parasitic flatworms. Further work is needed to elucidate the roles of GluCl receptors in schistosomes and to explore their potential as drug targets.

Ivermectin disrupts the function of the excretory-secretory apparatus in microfilariae of Brugia malayi.

Ivermectin (IVM) is a broad-spectrum anthelmintic used in filariasis control programs. By binding to nematode glutamate-gated chloride channels (GluCls), IVM disrupts neurotransmission processes regulated by GluCl activity. IVM treatment of filarial infections is characterized by an initial dramatic drop in the levels of circulating microfilariae, followed by long-term suppression of their production, but the drug has little direct effect on microfilariae in culture at pharmacologically relevant concentrations. We localized Brugia malayi GluCl expression solely in a muscle structure that surrounds the microfilarial excretory-secretory (ES) vesicle, which suggests that protein release from the ES vesicle is regulated by GluCl activity. Consistent with this hypothesis, exposure to IVM in vitro decreased the amount of protein released from microfilariae. To better understand the scope of IVM effects on protein release by the parasite, three different expression patterns were identified from immunolocalization assays on a representative group of five microfilarial ES products. Patterns of expression suggest that the ES apparatus is the main source of regulated ES product release from microfilariae, as it is the only compartment that appears to be under neuromuscular control. Our results show that IVM treatment of microfilariae results in a marked reduction of protein release from the ES apparatus. Under in vivo conditions, the rapid microfilarial clearance induced by IVM treatment is proposed to result from suppression of the ability of the parasite to secrete proteins that enable evasion of the host immune system.

New paradigms in research on Dirofilaria immitis.

BACKGROUND: Since the advent of ivermectin (along with melarsomine and doxycycline), heartworm has come to be viewed as a solved problem in veterinary medicine, diminishing investment into non-clinical research on Dirofilaria immitis. However, heartworm infections continue to pose problems for practitioners and their patients and seem to be increasing in frequency and geographic distribution. Resistance to preventative therapies (macrocyclic lactones) complicates the picture. The use of chemotherapy for other kinds of pathogens has benefitted enormously from research into the basic biology of the pathogen and on the host-pathogen interface. A lack of basic information on heartworms as parasites and how they interact with permissive and non-permissive hosts greatly limits the ability to discover new ways to prevent and treat heartworm disease. Recent advances in technical platforms will help overcome the intrinsic barriers that hamper research on D. immitis, most notably, the need for experimentally infected dogs to maintain the life cycle and provide material for experiments. Impressive achievements in the development of laboratory animal models for D. immitis will enhance efforts to discover new drugs for prevention or treatment, to characterize new diagnostic biomarkers and to identify key parasite-derived molecules that are essential for survival in permissive hosts, providing a rational basis for vaccine discovery. A 'genomics toolbox' for D. immitis could enable unprecedented insight into the negotiations between host and parasite that enable survival in a permissive host. The more we know about the pathogen and how it manipulates its host, the better able we will be to protect companion animals far into the future.

Model nematodes as a practical innovation to promote high throughput screening of natural products for anthelmintics discovery in South Asia: Current challenges, proposed practical and conceptual solutions.

With the increasing prevalence of anthelmintic resistance in animals recorded globally, and the threat of resistance in human helminths, the need for novel anthelmintic drugs is greater than ever. Most research aimed at discovering novel anthelmintic leads relies on high throughput screening (HTS) of large libraries of synthetic small molecules in industrial and academic settings in developed countries, even though it is the tropical countries that are most plagued by helminth infections. Tropical countries, however, have the advantage of possessing a rich flora that may yield natural products (NP) with promising anthelmintic activity. Focusing on South Asia, which produces one of the world's highest research outputs in NP and NP-based anthelmintic discovery, we find that limited basic research and funding, a lack of awareness of the utility of model organisms, poor industry-academia partnerships and lack of technological innovations greatly limit anthelmintics research in the region. Here we propose that utilizing model organisms including the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, that can potentially allow rapid target identification of novel anthelmintics, and Oscheius tipulae, a closely related, free-living nematode which is found abundantly in soil in hotter temperatures, could be a much-needed innovation that can enable cost-effective and efficient HTS of NPs for discovering compounds with anthelmintic/antiparasitic potential in South Asia and other tropical regions that historically have devoted limited funding for such research. Additionally, increased collaborations at the national, regional and international level between parasitologists and pharmacologists/ethnobotanists, setting up government-industry-academia partnerships to fund academic research, creating a centralized, regional collection of plant extracts or purified NPs as a dereplication strategy and HTS library, and holding regional C. elegans/O. tipulae-based anthelmintics workshops and conferences to share knowledge and resources regarding model organisms may collectively promote and foster a NP-based anthelmintics landscape in South Asia and beyond.

Are new anthelmintics needed to eliminate human helminthiases?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Anthelmintic mass drug administration (MDA) has limited pathology and transmission of filariases, schistosomiasis and gastrointestinal nematodiases in many areas of the world. This record has led to the adoption of ambitious goals for eliminating these infections on a global scale within the next decade or two by expansion of MDA with available drugs. This review considers the attributes of anthelmintics that favor or limit attainment of the scaled-up plans for elimination, and highlights situations for which new or reformulated drugs may be needed. RECENT FINDINGS: Many challenges face elimination campaigns. Anthelmintic needs include, first, a macrofilaricidal regimen that speeds up elimination, is safe to use in regions of Onchocerca volvulus and Loa loa coendemicity, and provides a rapid method to resolve infections introduced into previously controlled areas; second, a replacement of praziquantel for schistosomiasis should a resistance arise; third, formulations of praziquantel to enhance compliance, and pediatric formulations for preschool children; fourth, a regimen that provides high efficacy against Trichuris trichiura (new anthelmintic, prolonged dosing strategy or anthelmintic combinations); fifth, pediatric formulations of albendazole and mebendazole compatible with elimination operations; and sixth, an alternative to benzimidazoles in the anticipation of the development of drug resistance. SUMMARY: Expansion of MDA programs to attain elimination of human helminthiases is a noble and worthwhile endeavor. Increased drug pressure should be expected to select resistance alleles. Alternative anthelmintics and regimens should be developed for deployment to ensure that the ambitious goals for elimination are not endangered due to an inadequate pharmacopeia.

Sugar Coating: Utilisation of Host Serum Sialoglycoproteins by Schistosoma mansoni as a Potential Immune Evasion Mechanism.

Parasitic helminths resort to various mechanisms to evade and modulate their host's immune response, several of which have been described for Schistosoma mansoni. We recently reported the presence of sialic acid residues on the surface of adult S. mansoni extracellular vesicles (EVs). We now report that these sialylated molecules are mammalian serum proteins. In addition, our data suggest that most sialylated EV-associated proteins do not elicit a humoral response upon injection into mice, or in sera obtained from infected animals. Sialic acids frequently terminate glycans on the surface of vertebrate cells, where they serve important functions in physiological processes such as cell adhesion and signalling. Interestingly, several pathogens have evolved ways to mimic or utilise host sialic acid beneficially by coating their own proteins, thereby facilitating cell invasion and providing protection from host immune effectors. Together, our results indicate that S. mansoni EVs are coated with host glycoproteins, which may contribute to immune evasion by masking antigenic sites, protecting EVs from removal from serum and aiding in cell adhesion and entry to exert their functions.

Structural mechanism underlying the differential effects of ivermectin and moxidectin on the C. elegans glutamate-gated chloride channel GLC-2.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Nematode glutamate-gated chloride channels (GluCls) are targets of ivermectin (IVM) and moxidectin (MOX), structurally dissimilar macrocyclic lactone (ML) anthelmintics. IVM and MOX possess different pharmacokinetics and efficacy profiles but are thought to have the same binding site, through which they allosterically activate GluCls, apart from the GLC-2 receptor, which is antagonized by IVM. Our goal was to determine GLC-2 sensitivity to MOX, investigate residues involved in antagonism of GLC-2, and to identify differences in receptor-level pharmacology between IVM and MOX. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: Two-electrode voltage clamp electrophysiology was used to study the pharmacology of Caenorhabditis elegans GLC-2 receptors heterologously expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes. In silico homology modeling identified Cel-GLC-2 residues Met291 and Gln292 at the IVM binding site that differ from other GluCls; we mutated these residues to those found in ML-sensitive GluCls, and those of filarial nematode GLC-2. KEY RESULTS: We discovered that MOX inhibits wild-type C. elegans GLC-2 receptors roughly 10-fold more potently than IVM, and with greater maximal inhibition of glutamate activation (MOX = 86.9 ± 2.5%; IVM = 57.8 ± 5.9%). IVM was converted into an agonist in the Met291Gln mutant, but MOX remained an antagonist. Glutamate responses were abrogated in a Met291Leu Gln292Thr double mutant (mimicking filarial nematode GLC-2), but MOX and IVM were converted into positive allosteric modulators of glutamate at this construct. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Our data provides new insights into differences in receptor-level pharmacology between IVM and MOX and identify residues responsible for ML antagonism of GLC-2.

Whole-organism phenotypic screening methods used in early-phase anthelmintic drug discovery.

Diseases caused by parasitic helminths (worms) represent a major global health burden in both humans and animals. As vaccines against helminths have yet to achieve a prominent role in worm control, anthelmintics are the primary tool to limit production losses and disease due to helminth infections in both human and veterinary medicine. However, the excessive and often uncontrolled use of these drugs has led to widespread anthelmintic resistance in these worms - particularly of animals - to almost all commercially available anthelmintics, severely compromising control. Thus, there is a major demand for the discovery and development of new classes of anthelmintics. A key component of the discovery process is screening libraries of compounds for anthelmintic activity. Given the need for, and major interest by the pharmaceutical industry in, novel anthelmintics, we considered it both timely and appropriate to re-examine screening methods used for anthelmintic discovery. Thus, we reviewed current literature (1977-2021) on whole-worm phenotypic screening assays developed and used in academic laboratories, with a particular focus on those employed to discover nematocides. This review reveals that at least 50 distinct phenotypic assays with low-, medium- or high-throughput capacity were developed over this period, with more recently developed methods being quantitative, semi-automated and higher throughput. The main features assessed or measured in these assays include worm motility, growth/development, morphological changes, viability/lethality, pharyngeal pumping, egg hatching, larval migration, CO2- or ATP-production and/or enzyme activity. Recent progress in assay development has led to the routine application of practical, cost-effective, medium- to high-throughput whole-worm screening assays in academic or public-private partnership (PPP) contexts, and major potential for novel high-content, high-throughput platforms in the near future. Complementing this progress are major advances in the molecular data sciences, computational biology and informatics, which are likely to further enable and accelerate anthelmintic drug discovery and development.

Investigating Flubendazole as an Anthelmintic Treatment for Guinea Worm (Dracunculus medinensis): Clinical Trials in Laboratory-Reared Ferrets and Domestic Dogs in Chad.

Dracunculus medinensis (Guinea worm [GW]), a zoonotic nematode targeted for eradication, has been managed using interventions aimed at humans; however, increases in domestic dog GW infections highlight the need for novel approaches. We conducted two clinical trials evaluating the efficacy of subcutaneously injected flubendazole (FBZ) as a treatment of GW infection. The first trial was conducted administering FBZ to experimentally infected ferrets; the second trial involved administering FBZ or a placebo to domestic dogs in the Republic of Tchad (Chad). We found contrasting results between the two trials. When adult gravid female GW were recovered from ferrets treated with FBZ, larvae presented in poor condition, with low to no motility, and an inability to infect copepods. Histopathology results indicated a disruption to morulae development within uteri of worms from treated animals. Results from the trial in Chadian dogs failed to indicate significant treatment of or prevention against GW infection. However, the difference in treatment intervals (1 month for ferrets and 6 months for dogs) or the timing of treatment (ferrets were treated later in the GW life-cycle than dogs) could explain different responses to the subcutaneous FBZ injections. Both trials provided valuable data guiding the use of FBZ in future trials (such as decreasing treatment intervals or increasing the dose of FBZ in dogs to increase exposure), and highlighted important lessons learned during the implementation of a field-based, double-blinded randomized control trial in Chadian dogs.

When Secretomes Meet Anthelmintics: Lessons for Therapeutic Interventions.

Helminth secretomes comprise many potential immunomodulators. The molecular and functional diversity of these entities and their importance at the host-parasite interface have been increasingly recognized. It is now common to hypothesize that parasite-derived molecules (PDMs) are essential mediators used by parasites to establish and remain in their hosts. Suppression of PDM release has been reported for two anthelmintic drug classes, the benzimidazoles and macrocyclic lactones, the mechanisms of action of which remain incompletely resolved. We propose that bringing together recent insights from different streams of parasitology research, for example, immunoparasitology and pharmacology, will stimulate the development of new ways to alter the host-parasite interface in the search for novel anthelmintic strategies.

Mining nematode protein secretomes to explain lifestyle and host specificity.

Parasitic nematodes are highly successful pathogens, inflicting disease on humans, animals and plants. Despite great differences in their life cycles, host preference and transmission modes, these parasites share a common capacity to manipulate their host's immune system. This is at least partly achieved through the release of excretory/secretory proteins, the most well-characterized component of nematode secretomes, that are comprised of functionally diverse molecules. In this work, we analyzed published protein secretomes of parasitic nematodes to identify common patterns as well as species-specific traits. The 20 selected organisms span 4 nematode clades, including plant pathogens, animal parasites, and the free-living species Caenorhabditis elegans. Transthyretin-like proteins were the only component common to all adult secretomes; many other protein classes overlapped across multiple datasets. The glycolytic enzymes aldolase and enolase were present in all parasitic species, but missing from C. elegans. Secretomes from larval stages showed less overlap between species. Although comparison of secretome composition across species and life-cycle stages is challenged by the use of different methods and depths of sequencing among studies, our workflow enabled the identification of conserved protein families and pinpointed elements that may have evolved as to enable parasitism. This strategy, extended to more secretomes, may be exploited to prioritize therapeutic targets in the future.

Analysis of Schistosoma mansoni Extracellular Vesicles Surface Glycans Reveals Potential Immune Evasion Mechanism and New Insights on Their Origins of Biogenesis.

Parasitic helminths are master manipulators of host immunity. Their strategy is complex and involves the release of excreted/secreted products, including extracellular vesicles (EVs). The protein and miRNA contents of EVs have been characterised for many parasitic helminths but, despite reports suggesting the importance of EV surface carbohydrate structures (glycans) in the interactions with target cells and thus subsequent effector functions, little is known about parasite EV glycomics. Using lectin microarrays, we identified several lectins that exhibit strong adhesion to Schistosoma mansoni EVs, suggesting the presence of multiple glycan structures on these vesicles. Interestingly, SNA-I, a lectin that recognises structures with terminal sialic acid, displayed strong affinity for S. mansoni EVs, which was completely abolished by neuraminidase treatment, suggesting sialylation in the EV sample. This finding is of interest, as sialic acids play important roles in the context of infection by aiding immune evasion, affecting target recognition, cell entry, etc., but are not thought to be synthesised by helminths. These data were validated by quantitative analysis of free sialic acid released from EVs following treatment with neuraminidase. Lectin histochemistry and fluorescence in situ hybridisation analyses on whole adult worms suggest the involvement of sub-tegumental cell bodies, as well as the digestive and excretory systems, in the release of EVs. These results support previous reports of EV biogenesis diversity in trematodes and potentially highlight new means of immune modulation and evasion employed by schistosomes.

Nonpeptide ligands for peptidergic G protein-coupled receptors.

Neuropeptides play essential roles in many physiological systems in vertebrates and invertebrates. Peptides per se are difficult to use as therapeutic agents, as they are generally very unstable in biological fluid environments and cross biological membranes poorly. Recognition that nonpeptide ligands for peptide receptors have clinical utility came from the discovery that opiates (such as morphine) act by binding to G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) for which the endogenous ligands are a family of neuropeptides (enkephalins and endorphins). Basic research has revealed a very large number of distinct neuropeptides that influence virtually every aspect of mammalian physiology and considerable effort has been expended in the pursuit of new drugs that act through peptidergic signaling systems. Although useful drugs have been found to affect various aspects ofneuropeptide biology, most work has been devoted to the discovery of nonpeptide ligands that act as agonists or antagonists at peptidergic GPCRs. Similar opportunities are apparent for the discovery of nonpeptide ligands that act on invertebrate GPCRs. A consideration of the knowledge gained from the process as conducted for mammalian peptidergic systems can inform and illuminate promising strategies for the discovery of new drugs for the treatment and control of pests and parasites.

FDA-Approved Antiparasitic Drugs in the 21st Century: A Success for Helminthiasis?

Diseases caused by helminth infections affect more than a quarter of the population of the world, but the therapeutic arsenal is limited. The approval of moxidectin in 2018 and triclabendazole in 2019 by the FDA marked an important moment in the fight against diseases of poverty, such as helminthiases.

A Functional Comparison of Homopentameric Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors (ACR-16) Receptors From Necator americanus and Ancylostoma ceylanicum.

Effective control of hookworm infections in humans and animals relies on using a small group of anthelmintics. Many of these drugs target cholinergic ligand-gated ion channels, yet the direct activity of anthelmintics has only been studied in a subset of these receptors, primarily in the non-parasitic nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans. Here we report the characterization of a homopentameric ionotropic acetylcholine receptor (AChR), ACR-16, from Necator americanus and Ancylostoma ceylanicum, the first known characterization of human hookworm ion channels. We used two-electrode voltage clamp electrophysiology in Xenopus laevis oocytes to determine the pharmacodynamics of cholinergics and anthelmintics on ACR-16 from both species of hookworm. The A. ceylanicum receptor (Ace-ACR-16) was more sensitive to acetylcholine (EC50 = 20.64 ± 0.32 µM) and nicotine (EC50 = 24.37 ± 2.89 µM) than the N. americanus receptor (Nam-ACR-16) (acetylcholine EC50 = 170.1 ± 19.23 µM; nicotine EC50 = 597.9 ± 59.12 µM), at which nicotine was a weak partial agonist (% maximal acetylcholine response = 30.4 ± 7.4%). Both receptors were inhibited by 500 µM levamisole (Ace-ACR-16 = 65.1 ± 14.3% inhibition, Nam-ACR-16 = 79.5 ± 7.7% inhibition), and responded to pyrantel, but only Ace-ACR-16 responded to oxantel. We used in silico homology modeling to investigate potential structural differences that account for the differences in agonist binding and identified a loop E isoleucine 130 of Nam-ACR-16 as possibly playing a role in oxantel insensitivity. These data indicate that key functional differences exist among ACR-16 receptors from closely related species and suggest mechanisms for differential drug sensitivity.

Identification of annotated bioactive molecules that impair motility of the blood fluke Schistosoma mansoni.

Neglected tropical diseases are of growing worldwide concern and schistosomiasis, caused by parasitic flatworms, continues to be a major threat with more than 200 million people requiring preventive treatment. As praziquantel (PZQ) remains the treatment of choice, an urgent need for alternative treatments motivates research to identify new lead compounds that would complement PZQ by filling the therapeutic gaps associated with this treatment. Because impairing parasite neurotransmission remains a core strategy for control of parasitic helminths, we screened a library of 708 compounds with validated biological activity in humans on the blood fluke Schistosoma mansoni, measuring their effect on the motility on schistosomulae and adult worms. The primary phenotypic screen performed on schistosomulae identified 70 compounds that induced changes in viability and/or motility. Screening different concentrations and incubation times identified molecules with fast onset of activity on both life stages at low concentration (1 µM). To complement this study, similar assays were performed with chemical analogs of the cholinomimetic drug arecoline and the calcilytic molecule NPS-2143, two compounds that rapidly inhibited schistosome motility; 17 arecoline and 302 NPS-2143 analogs were tested to enlarge the pool of schistosomicidal molecules. Finally, validated hit compounds were tested on three functionally-validated neuroregulatory S. mansoni G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs): Sm5HTR (serotonin-sensitive), SmGPR2 (histamine) and SmD2 (dopamine), revealing NPS-2143 and analogs as potent inhibitors of dopamine/epinine responses on both human and S. mansoni GPCRs. This study highlights the potential for repurposing known human therapeutic agents for potential schistosomicidal effects and expands the list of hits for further progression.