An in-depth investigation of the microbiota and its virulence factors associated with severe udder cleft dermatitis lesions.

Udder cleft dermatitis (UCD) is a skin condition affecting the anterior parts of the udder in dairy cattle. In the present study, we aimed to shed light on the microbiota in severe UCD lesions versus healthy udder skin by putting forward a taxonomic and functional profile based on a virulence factor analysis. Through shotgun metagenomic sequencing, we found a high proportion of bacteria in addition to a low abundance of archaea. A distinct clustering of healthy udder skin versus UCD lesion samples was shown by applying principal component analysis and (sparse) partial least squares analysis on the metagenomic data. Proteobacteria, Bacillota, and Actinomycetota were among the most abundant phyla in healthy udder skin samples. In UCD samples, Bacteroidota was the most abundant phylum. At genus level, Bifidobacterium spp. had the highest relative abundance in healthy skin samples, whereas Porphyromonas spp. and Corynebacterium spp. had the highest relative abundance in UCD samples. In the differential abundance analysis, Porphyromonas spp. and Bacteroides spp. were significantly differentially abundant in UCD samples, whereas Bifidobacterium spp., Staphylococcus sp. AntiMn-1, and Staphylococcus equorum were more commonly found in healthy samples. Moreover, the abundance of several treponeme phylotypes was significantly higher in lesion samples. The streptococcal cysteine protease speB was among the most abundant virulence factors present in severe UCD lesions, while a plethora of virulence factors such as the antitoxin relB were downregulated, possibly contributing to creating the ideal wound climate for the dysbiotic community. Network analysis showed healthy lesion samples had a large network ofpositive, correlations between the abundances of beneficial species such as Aerococcus urinaeequi and Bifidobacterium angulatum, indicating that the healthy skin microbiome forms an active protective bacterial network, which is disrupted in case of UCD. In UCD samples, a smaller microbial network mainly consisting of positive correlations between the abundances of Bacteroides fragilis and anaerobic Bacteroidota was exposed. Moreover, a high correlation between the taxonomic data and virulence factors was revealed, concurrently with 2 separate networks of microbes and virulence factors. One network, matching with the taxonomic findings in the healthy udder skin samples, showcased a community of harmless or beneficial bacteria, such as Bifidobacterium spp. and Butyrivibrio proteoclasticus, associated with hcnB, hcnC, relB, glyoxalase, and cupin 2. The other network, corresponding to UCD samples, consisted of pathogenic or facultative pathogenic and mainly anaerobic bacteria such as Treponema spp., Mycoplasmopsis spp., and bovine gammaherpesvirus 4, that correlated with virulence factors SpvB, fhaB, and haemagglutination activity domain-associated factor. Our results point toward a dysbiotic community with a notable decrease in diversity and evenness, with a loss of normal skin inhabitants and innocuous or useful species making way for predominantly anaerobic, facultative pathogens. The shift in the abundance of virulence factors such as fhaB and SpvB could play a role in the manifestation of a local micro-environment favorable to the microbiome associated with udder skin lesions. Lastly, the presence of specific networks between microbial species, and between microbes and virulence factors was shown.

Progress in the development of subunit vaccines for gastrointestinal nematodes of ruminants.

The global increase in anthelmintic resistant nematodes of ruminants, together with consumer concerns about chemicals in food, necessitates the development of alternative methods of control for these pathogens. Subunit recombinant vaccines are ideally placed to fill this gap. Indeed, they are probably the only valid option for the long-term control of ruminant parasitic nematodes given the increasing ubiquity of multidrug resistance in a range of worm species across the world. The development of a subunit multicellular parasite vaccine to the point of practical application would be a groundbreaking step in the control of these important endemic infections of livestock. This review summarizes the current status of subunit vaccine development for a number of important gastrointestinal nematodes of cattle and sheep, with a focus on the limitations and problems encountered thus far, and suggestions as to how these hurdles might be overcome.

Host Th1/Th2 immune response to Taenia solium cyst antigens in relation to cyst burden of neurocysticercosis.

Neurocysticercosis (NCC), Taenia solium larval infection of the brain, is an important cause of acquired seizures in endemic countries, which relate to number, location and degenerating cysts in the brain. Multicyst infections are common in endemic countries although single-cyst infection prevails in India. Single-cyst infections in an endemic country suggest a role for host immunity limiting the infection. This study examined ex vivo CD4(+) T cells and in vitro Th1 and Th2 cytokine responses to T. solium cyst antigens of peripheral blood mononuclear cells of healthy subjects from endemic and nonendemic regions and of single- and multicyst-infected patients for association with cyst burden of NCC. T. solium cyst antigens elicited a Th1 cytokine response in healthy subjects of T. solium-endemic and T. solium-non-endemic regions and those with single-cyst infections and a Th2 cytokine response from subjects with multicyst neurocysticercosis. Multicyst neurocysticercosis subjects also exhibited low levels of effector memory CD4(+) T cells. Th1 cytokine response of T. solium exposure and low infectious loads may aid in limiting cyst number. Th2 cytokines and low effector T cells may enable multiple-cyst infections to establish and persist.

Analysis of the mucosal immune responses induced by single and trickle infections with the bovine abomasal nematode Ostertagia ostertagi.

The purpose of this study was to provide more information on the kinetics of the immunological changes occurring in the abomasal mucosa after single and trickle infections with the bovine parasite Ostertagia ostertagi. The time course analysis of gene expression revealed that the major changes coincided with the emergence of adult worms from the gastric glands. These changes consisted of a simultaneous upregulation of Th1- and Th2-type cytokines. In addition, a single O. ostertagi infection elicited an upregulation of the epithelial-derived cytokine IL33, while TSLP expression levels were not impacted. Apart from the massive increase in inflammatory cytokines IL6, IL17 and IL21, O. ostertagi infection also elicited an upregulation of the immunosuppressors TGFB, IL10 and ARG1, as well as NK and γδ-T cell markers. Furthermore, the cytotoxic factors granulysin, perforin and granzyme B were upregulated following an O. ostertagi infection. Analysis of cytokine transcript levels in animals receiving trickle infections for 60 days showed a similar trend as observed following a single infection except for IL33, IL6, GATA-3, TBX21 and NCR1, which were no longer upregulated after trickle infections. Finally, the long trickle infections were associated with mucosal eosinophilia and mastocytosis.

Giardia duodenalis stimulates partial maturation of bovine dendritic cells associated with altered cytokine secretion and induction of T-cell proliferation.

Giardia duodenalis is an important intestinal parasite in animals and humans. The role of dendritic cells (DC) in the initiation of the immune response against G. duodenalis is poorly documented. The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that G. duodenalis interferes with bovine DC function. Therefore, the effect of trophozoites and excretion/secretion products on bovine monocyte-derived dendritic cells (MoDC) was investigated. We assessed MoDC maturation and cytokine production of G. duodenalis-stimulated MoDC and the ability of these MoDC to take up antigen and induce lymphocyte proliferation. Little or no upregulation of maturation markers CD40 and CD80 was measured, but MHCII expression was increased after stimulation with low parasite concentrations. A dose-dependent decrease in ovalbumin uptake was observed in G. duodenalis-stimulated MoDC. In addition, stimulated MoDC induced proliferation of CD3(-) , γδ-T-cells and TCRαß(+) CD4(+) and CD8(+) T-cells. Increased transcription of TGF-ß was shown in CD4(+) T cells, and increased TNF-α, TGF-ß, IL-10 and IL-4 were seen in γδ-T-cells. We found no evidence that G. duodenalis has a regulatory or inhibitory effect on bovine MoDC. MoDC stimulated with G. duodenalis are functionally active and able to induce proliferation of T cells that produce both pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines.

Gene expression analysis of ABC transporters in a resistant Cooperia oncophora isolate following in vivo and in vitro exposure to macrocyclic lactones.

Members of the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter family (P-glycoproteins, Half-transporters and Multidrug Resistant Proteins) potentially play a role in the development of anthelmintic resistance. The aim of this study was to investigate the possible involvement of ABC transporters in anthelmintic resistance in the bovine parasite, Cooperia oncophora. Partial sequences of 15 members of the ABC transporter protein family were identified, by mining a transcriptome dataset combined with a degenerate PCR approach. Reverse transcriptase PCR showed that most of the ABC transporters identified were constitutively transcribed throughout the life cycle of C. oncophora. Constitutive differences in gene transcript levels between a susceptible and resistant isolate were only observed for Con-haf-9 and Con-mrp-1 in eggs of the resistant isolate, while no differences were observed in L3 or the adult life stage. Analysis of resistant adult worms, collected from calves 14 days after treatment with either ivermectin or moxidectin, showed a significant 3- to 5-fold increase in the transcript levels of Con-pgp-11 compared to non-exposed worms. Interestingly, a 4-fold transcriptional up-regulation of Con-pgp-11 was also observed in L3 of the resistant isolate, after in vitro exposure to different concentrations of ivermectin, whereas this effect was not observed in exposed L3 of the susceptible isolate. The results suggest that the worms of this particular resistant isolate have acquired the ability to up-regulate Con-pgp-11 upon exposure to macrocyclic lactones. Further work is needed to understand the genetic basis underpinning this process and the functional role of PGP-11.

Severe udder cleft dermatitis lesion transcriptomics points to an impaired skin barrier, defective wound repair and a dysregulated inflammatory response as key elements in the pathogenesis.

This study is the first to investigate the transcriptomic changes occurring in severe udder cleft dermatitis lesions (UCD) in Holstein-Friesian cows. An examination of the gene expression levels in natural UCD lesions and healthy udder skin through RNA Seq-Technology provided a deeper insight into the inflammatory pathways associated with this disease. A clear distinction between the gene expression patterns of UCD lesions and healthy skin was shown in the principal component analysis. Genes coding for inflammatory molecules were upregulated such as the chemokines C-X-C motif ligand 2 (CXCL2), 5 (CXCL5) and 8 (CXCL8), and C-C motif ligand 11 (CCL11). Moreover, the genes coding for the multifunctional molecules ADAM12 and SLPI were amongst the highest upregulated ones, whereas the most downregulated genes included the ones coding for keratins and keratin-associated molecules. Predominantly inflammatory pathways such as the chemokine signaling, cytokine receptor interaction and IL-17 signaling pathway were significantly upregulated in the pathway analysis. These results point towards a fulminant, dysregulated inflammatory response concomitant with a disruption of the skin barrier integrity and a hampered wound repair mechanism in severe UCD lesions.

Immunologically based control strategies for ostertagiosis in cattle: where do we stand?

Ostertagia ostertagi is one of the most important gastrointestinal parasites infecting millions of cattle in temperate climate areas. Because infection leads to significant losses in productivity, farmers are pushed, because of the on-going intensification of the livestock production systems, to frequently administer anthelmintics to minimize the exposure of their animals to this parasite. However, whether such approach is sustainable in the long term, especially in an era of emerging drug resistance and global climatic changes, is still a matter of debate. Immunological control of worm infections through vaccination is often put forward as the most rational and cost-effective alternative for anthelmintics to control helminth infections. However, the development of an immunologically based control strategy requires a thorough knowledge of the host-parasite interactions, the immune responses involved and the biology of the parasite itself. The aim of this review is to consolidate information available in these areas, specifically for O. ostertagi, and identify some critical gaps in our current knowledge.

Galectin-11 induction in the gastrointestinal tract of cattle following nematode and protozoan infections.

Galectin-11 (LGALS11) has been suggested to play an important role in protective immunity against gastrointestinal nematodes in ruminants. However, in cattle, this molecule has not been characterized in detail. In the current study, it was shown that transcription of LGALS11 was highly inducible in the bovine abomasal mucosa after an Ostertagia ostertagi infection. LGALS11 protein expression was also increased in the abomasal mucosa following O. ostertagi infection and localized to the nucleus and cytoplasm of epithelial cells and the mucus. Using in vitro abomasal epithelial cell cultures, it was shown that LGALS11 induction was associated with the proliferative and dedifferentiated status of cells. However, LGALS11 was not induced following stimulation with O. ostertagi excretory-secretory products. These results suggest that LGALS11 induction in vivo may be an indirect rather than a direct effect of the parasite on the epithelium. In addition, LGALS11 transcript was also detected in the abomasal lymph nodes where it was shown to be transcribed in MHCII+ cells; however, transcription levels in the lymph nodes were not altered after O. ostertagi infection. In addition, LGALS11 was also induced in the small intestine by different types of parasites, including the nematode Cooperia oncophora and the protozoan parasite Giardia duodenalis.

Immunizing pigs with Ascaris suum haemoglobin increases the inflammatory response in the liver but fails to induce a protective immunity.

To determine whether purified Ascaris suum haemoglobin (AsHb) is a suitable vaccine candidate for the control of Ascaris infections, pigs were vaccinated with AsHb in combination with QuilA adjuvant and challenged with A. suum eggs. The number of liver lesions and worms in the intestine was assessed on day 14, 28 and 56 post-infection (p.i.). No significant differences were found in the number of worms recovered between vaccinated and control pigs on any of these days. However, significantly more white spots were counted on the livers of vaccinated pigs on day 14 (+86%) and day 28 (+118%) p.i. compared with nonvaccinated controls. To investigate whether the increased immunoreactivity against the liver stage L3s in vaccinated pigs was triggered by and directed against AsHb, the transcription and expression of AsHb in this larval life stage was analysed by RT-PCR and immunoblotting. The results showed that neither the AsHb transcript nor protein was detectable in freshly hatched L3. However, the immunoblot analysis showed that vaccination with AsHb resulted in the production of antibodies binding to several other antigens of the L3, suggesting that these might be involved in the increased white spot development.

Regulatory role of the intestinal microbiota in the immune response against Giardia.

Giardia duodenalis is one of the most commonly found intestinal parasites in mammalian hosts. Infections can generally be cleared by mounting an adequate protective immune response that is orchestrated through IL-17A. This study was aimed to investigate if and how the intestinal microbiome affects the protective Th17 response against Giardia by analysing and comparing the immune response following a G. muris and G. duodenalis infection in antibiotic treated and untreated mice. Depletion of the intestinal flora by antibiotic treatment had a severe effect on the infection dynamics of both Giardia species. Not only duration of infection was affected, but also the parasite burden increased significantly. Markers associated with a protective immune response, such as IL-17A and mannose binding lectin 2 were still significantly upregulated following infection in the antibiotic-treated mice, despite the lack of protection. On the other hand, the antibiotic treatment significantly decreased the level of IgA in the intestinal lumen by affecting its transporter and by reducing the number of IgA+ B-cells at the Peyer's patches. Furthermore, the depletion of the gut microbiota by antibiotics also significantly lowered the intestinal motility. The combination of these factors likely results in a decreased clearance of the parasite from the intestinal tract.

Evaluation of a Cooperia oncophora double-domain ASP-based vaccine against Cooperia spp. infections in cattle and sheep.

A double-domain activation-associated secreted protein (dd-Co-ASP) isolated from the bovine small intestinal parasite Cooperia oncophora was previously shown to be an effective vaccine candidate to protect calves against a homologous challenge infection. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the dd-Co-ASP protein, purified from a Belgian C. oncophora isolate, would offer protection against a C. oncophora isolate from the southern hemisphere as well as other Cooperia species such as C. punctata in cattle and C. curticei in sheep. Two vaccination studies were performed, i.e. one in cattle and one in sheep, in which the protective effects of dd-Co-ASP, supplemented with Quil A as an adjuvant, were compared with an adjuvant control. Whereas our results showed a 75 % reduction in Cooperia spp. cumulative faecal egg counts, the results obtained in sheep demonstrated that dd-Co-ASP was ineffective in raising a protective immune response against a C. curticei challenge infection. Even though sequence analysis of the dd-Co-ASP gene revealed restricted sequence heterogeneity in the double domain ASP within and between bovine Cooperia species, the results of the vaccine study suggest that there is sufficient conservation at the protein level to yield cross-protection, holding promise for the development of a general Cooperia vaccine for use in cattle.

Mixed Giardia duodenalis assemblage A and E infections in calves.

A molecular epidemiological study was conducted on 100 dairy (499 calves) and 50 beef (333 calves) farms in Belgium to estimate the prevalence of different Giardia duodenalis assemblages in calves younger than 10 weeks of age. Positive samples from the epidemiological study and from a previous clinical study were selected and genotyped based on the amplification of the beta-giardin gene. To investigate the occurence of mixed assemblage A and E infections in calves, a novel assemblage-specific PCR was developed based on the triose-phosphate isomerase gene. The prevalence was 22% (95% Probability Interval (PI): 12-34%) in dairy calves and 45% (95% PI: 30-64%) in beef calves. In total, 120 Giardia-positive samples from dairy and beef calves collected in the epidemiological study and from clinically affected calves were identified based on the amplification of the beta-giardin gene. Overall G. duodenalis assemblage E was more prevalent (in 64% of the samples), although the majority (59%) of the dairy calves were infected with G. duodenalis assemblage A. Furthermore, mixed G. duodenalis assemblage A and E infections were identified in 31% of the calf samples (n=101) using the assemblage-specific PCR. We believe this is the first report of mixed infections in calves, and the results of the present study indicate that calves, although mainly infected with the host-specific G. duodenalis assemblage E, are frequently infected with the zoonotic assemblage A, either as a mixed or mono-infection, suggesting that calves might be underestimated as a potential zoonotic reservoir for human infections.

Gender-enriched transcription of activation associated secreted proteins in Ostertagia ostertagi.

Activation associated secreted proteins (ASP) are members of a nematode-specific protein family belonging to the SCP/Tpx-1/Ag5/PR-1/Sc7 family. Three different types of molecules have been identified in this family: two-domain ASPs and single-domain ASPs showing homology to either the C-terminal or N-terminal domain of the two-domain ASP. The function of these proteins is still unclear, but a role in transition to parasitism and a role as allergen are often suggested. Here we report that the abomasal cattle parasite Ostertagia ostertagi produces at least 15 ASPs, including two-domain and C- and N-type single-domain ASPs. Ten of these are highly transcribed in the L4 stage, whereas others are highly enriched in adult male worms. The latter was especially the case for the N-type single-domain ASPs Oo-ASP1 and Oo-ASP2 and also for Oo-ASP3, which is homologous with the Haemonchus contortus and Ancylostoma caninum C-type single-domain ASPs. Immunohistochemistry showed that Oo-ASP3 was localised in the oesophagus. Oo-ASP1 and Oo-ASP2 on the other hand were localised in the reproductive tract of both male and female worms, suggesting a role in reproduction or in the development of the reproductive tract.

Mind the gaps in research on the control of gastrointestinal nematodes of farmed ruminants and pigs.

Gastrointestinal (GI) nematode control has an important role to play in increasing livestock production from a limited natural resource base and to improve animal health and welfare. In this synthetic review, we identify key research priorities for GI nematode control in farmed ruminants and pigs, to support the development of roadmaps and strategic research agendas by governments, industry and policymakers. These priorities were derived from the DISCONTOOLS gap analysis for nematodes and follow-up discussions within the recently formed Livestock Helminth Research Alliance (LiHRA). In the face of ongoing spread of anthelmintic resistance (AR), we are increasingly faced with a failure of existing control methods against GI nematodes. Effective vaccines against GI nematodes are generally not available, and anthelmintic treatment will therefore remain a cornerstone for their effective control. At the same time, consumers and producers are increasingly concerned with environmental issues associated with chemical parasite control. To address current challenges in GI nematode control, it is crucial to deepen our insights into diverse aspects of epidemiology, AR, host immune mechanisms and the socio-psychological aspects of nematode control. This will enhance the development, and subsequent uptake, of the new diagnostics, vaccines, pharma-/nutraceuticals, control methods and decision support tools required to respond to the spread of AR and the shifting epidemiology of GI nematodes in response to climatic, land-use and farm husbandry changes. More emphasis needs to be placed on the upfront evaluation of the economic value of these innovations as well as the socio-psychological aspects to prioritize research and facilitate uptake of innovations in practice. Finally, targeted regulatory guidance is needed to create an innovation-supportive environment for industries and to accelerate the access to market of new control tools.

Vaccination against Ostertagia ostertagi with subfractions of the protective ES-thiol fraction.

Previous vaccination trials against Ostertagia ostertagi in cattle have demonstrated the protective capacity of a protein fraction termed ES-thiol, which is enriched for activation-associated secreted proteins (ASPs) and cysteine proteases. In this study, ES-thiol was subfractionated through Q-Sepharose anion exchange chromatography to determine whether the ASPs and/or the cysteine proteases are responsible for the induced protection. Calves (seven/group) were immunized three times intramuscularly with 100 microg of ES-thiol or equivalent amounts of an ASP-enriched fraction, a cysteine protease-enriched fraction or a rest fraction, with QuilA adjuvant. A negative control group only received QuilA. After the final immunization the animals were challenged with a trickle infection of 25,000 infectious L3 larvae (1000 L3/day; 5 days/week). During a 2-month period the geometric mean cumulative faecal egg count (FEC) of the ES-thiol group was reduced by 62% compared to the QuilA control group (P<0.05). Groups injected with the ASP-enriched, the cysteine protease-enriched and the rest fraction demonstrated a reduction in cumulative FEC of 74, 80 and 70%, respectively (P<0.01). Although no significant reductions in worm burdens were observed, adult male and female worms were significantly smaller in all vaccinated groups (P<0.05), except for male worms from the ES-thiol group. These results suggest the protective capacity of ASPs and the presence of other protective antigens in the ES-thiol fraction.

Experimental selection for ivermectin resistance in Ostertagia ostertagi in cattle.

Recent reports of suspected ivermectin (IVM) resistance in Ostertagia ostertagi have highlighted the need for research into the mechanisms of IVM resistance. However, there are no reports of resistant field isolates of O. ostertagi, which have been characterized for molecular research. Therefore, an anthelmintic susceptible O. ostertagi population was selected for IVM resistance by repeatedly exposing the population to subtherapeutic and therapeutic levels of IVM over 10 generations. In each selection round, a group of calves was infected with the progeny of the previous IVM-selected O. ostertagi population. In the last selection round a therapeutic IVM dose (0.2 mg/kg BW) only reduced the faecal egg counts by 57% and 65% on days 7 and 14 after treatment, respectively. In contrast, the therapeutic IVM dose was 100% effective at eliminating the parental IVM-susceptible isolate.

Serological detection of Ascaris suum at fattening pig farms is linked with performance and management indices.

The aim of the present study was to determine the association between the presence of Ascaris suum at fattening pig farms, using different serological methods and the percentage of affected livers at slaughter, with performance and management indices. In total, 21 fattening pig farms from the North of Spain were included in the study. Serum samples were collected from pigs at slaughter and analysed for the presence of anti-Ascaris antibodies. For this, two different ELISAs were used. The first was based on the antibody recognition of the A. suum haemoglobin (As-Hb) molecule whereas the second test used the total extract of A. suum lung stage L3. The serological results were subsequently correlated with the percentage of condemned livers at slaughter, management practices and technical performance parameters including average daily gain (ADG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR). According to the data from the slaughterhouse, 12 out of the 21 farms had livers condemned due to liver white spots. A total of 10 farms (48%) had an average optical density ratio (ODr) exceeding the test cutoff when the As-Hb ELISA was used. This number increased to 18 farms (81%) when using the As-Lung-L3 ELISA. The average ODr of the farms on both ELISAs correlated positively with the percentage of affected livers (P<0.01). Only the average ODr values obtained with the As-Lung-L3 ELISA were positively correlated with the FCR (P<0.01). No correlation was found between percentage of affected livers or serology and the ADG. In relation to management practices, farms with greater than or equal to 50% slatted flooring and that applied the 'all-in/all-out' flow system showed a lower percentage of liver condemnations (P<0.01), lower average ODr results on the As-Lung-L3 ELISA (P<0.05) and lower FCR (P<0.01) compared with those with less than 50% slatted flooring. This study emphasizes that serology is a promising diagnostic tool for diagnosing ascariasis at fattening pig farms. It also supports earlier findings that the presence of A. suum can have a significant negative impact on farm productivity and that stable infrastructure or management practices can have a considerable impact on the control of this parasite.

Characterisation of the two most abundant genes in the Haemonchus contortus expressed sequence tag dataset.

Analysis of the Haemonchus contortus Expressed sequence tag (EST) dataset revealed that almost 10% of all ESTs (1719 ESTs) belong to a family of related genes. Close analysis of the ESTs suggests that these represent two genes (called here Hc-nim-1 and Hc-nim-2) with multiple alleles of each. These genes show significant similarity to two genes from Caenorhabditis elegans, F54D5.3 (Wormbase accession WBGene00010049, corresponding protein WP:CE28033) and F54D5.4 (WBGene00010050, WP:CE03409) of unknown function. Reverse transcriptase coupled-PCR showed that both genes are transcribed from the L4 stage onwards and are transcribed in both male and female adult worms. A partial bacterial recombinant of the Hc-NIM-1 protein was made and used to raise antiserum in rabbits which recognised a 19 kDa antigen in the water soluble protein fraction of adult worms. By immunohistochemistry, the Hc-NIM-1 protein was localised in the hypodermis of the pharyngeal region of adult worms but not posterior in the hypodermis surrounding the reproductive tract. To investigate the function of this novel protein family we conducted a RNA interference experiment for the homologuous proteins in C. elegans. No visible phenotype was detected after simultaneous RNAi treatment for both Ce-F54D5.3 and Ce-F54D5.4.

Placental transfer of immunoglobulins in cattle infected with Schistosoma mattheei.

Although the epitheliochorial placenta of ruminants does not allow passage of immunoglobulins from dam to foetus specific antibodies have been detected at birth in calves born to Schistosoma mattheei-infected cows. The present study determined the prevalence of calves born with specific antibodies for S. mattheei and the origin of these antibodies. For the determination of the prevalence, 100 calves born to infected mothers in an endemic area (Zambia) were examined, 24 were seropositive. To study the origin of these antibodies placentomes of 40 naturally S. mattheei-infected cows were examined for the presence of schistosome eggs and lesions which could explain foetal priming and/or leakage of maternal antibodies and/or antigen into the foetus. Tissue damage and schistosome eggs were observed on the maternal as well as the foetal side of the placentomes. In order to determine the specific nature of the antibody response, antibody profiles against soluble adult worm antigen preparation (SWAP) of S. mattheei were compared by Western blot between dams and their newborn calves (n = 8). The specific recognition profiles were identical for the seropositive calves and their dams on SWAP mattheei. Identical recognition profiles between dams and calves were also observed when sera were analysed on Escherichia coli, a pathogen of which the foetus should be free, and would indicate passive antibody transfer from the dam. In conclusion, the present study shows that S. mattheei could induce placentome lesions and that eggs can cross the placenta. Consequently, foeti can come into contact with S. mattheei antigens in utero, and might also contain maternal antibodies from leakage through placentome lesions. As such, the infection status of the mother could have far reaching effects on the immunological status of her offspring and modify their reaction upon infection.