Lipids and Trehalose Actively Cooperate in Heat Stress Management of Schizosaccharomyces pombe.

Homeostatic maintenance of the physicochemical properties of cellular membranes is essential for life. In yeast, trehalose accumulation and lipid remodeling enable rapid adaptation to perturbations, but their crosstalk was not investigated. Here we report about the first in-depth, mass spectrometry-based lipidomic analysis on heat-stressed Schizosaccharomyces pombe mutants which are unable to synthesize (tps1Δ) or degrade (ntp1Δ) trehalose. Our experiments provide data about the role of trehalose as a membrane protectant in heat stress. We show that under conditions of trehalose deficiency, heat stress induced a comprehensive, distinctively high-degree lipidome reshaping in which structural, signaling and storage lipids acted in concert. In the absence of trehalose, membrane lipid remodeling was more pronounced and increased with increasing stress dose. It could be characterized by decreasing unsaturation and increasing acyl chain length, and required de novo synthesis of stearic acid (18:0) and very long-chain fatty acids to serve membrane rigidification. In addition, we detected enhanced and sustained signaling lipid generation to ensure transient cell cycle arrest as well as more intense triglyceride synthesis to accommodate membrane lipid-derived oleic acid (18:1) and newly synthesized but unused fatty acids. We also demonstrate that these changes were able to partially substitute for the missing role of trehalose and conferred measurable stress tolerance to fission yeast cells.

Plasma membranes as heat stress sensors: from lipid-controlled molecular switches to therapeutic applications.

The classic heat shock (stress) response (HSR) was originally attributed to protein denaturation. However, heat shock protein (Hsp) induction occurs in many circumstances where no protein denaturation is observed. Recently considerable evidence has been accumulated to the favor of the "Membrane Sensor Hypothesis" which predicts that the level of Hsps can be changed as a result of alterations to the plasma membrane. This is especially pertinent to mild heat shock, such as occurs in fever. In this condition the sensitivity of many transient receptor potential (TRP) channels is particularly notable. Small temperature stresses can modulate TRP gating significantly and this is influenced by lipids. In addition, stress hormones often modify plasma membrane structure and function and thus initiate a cascade of events, which may affect HSR. The major transactivator heat shock factor-1 integrates the signals originating from the plasma membrane and orchestrates the expression of individual heat shock genes. We describe how these observations can be tested at the molecular level, for example, with the use of membrane perturbers and through computational calculations. An important fact which now starts to be addressed is that membranes are not homogeneous nor do all cells react identically. Lipidomics and cell profiling are beginning to address the above two points. Finally, we observe that a deregulated HSR is found in a large number of important diseases where more detailed knowledge of the molecular mechanisms involved may offer timely opportunities for clinical interventions and new, innovative drug treatments. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Membrane Structure and Function: Relevance in the Cell's Physiology, Pathology and Therapy.

Changes in membrane fluid state and heat shock response cause attenuation of virulence.

So far attenuation of pathogens has been mainly obtained by chemical or heat treatment of microbial pathogens. Recently, live attenuated strains have been produced by genetic modification. We have previously demonstrated that in several prokaryotes as well as in yeasts and mammalian cells the heat shock response is controlled by the membrane physical state (MPS). We have also shown that in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium LT2 (Salmonella Typhimurium) overexpression of a Delta(12)-desaturase gene alters the MPS, inducing a sharp impairment of transcription of major heat shock genes and failure of the pathogen to grow inside macrophage (MPhi) (A. Porta et al., J. Bacteriol. 192:1988-1998, 2010). Here, we show that overexpression of a homologous Delta(9)-desaturase sequence in the highly virulent G217B strain of the human fungal pathogen Histoplasma capsulatum causes loss of its ability to survive and persist within murine MPhi along with the impairment of the heat shock response. When the attenuated strain of H. capsulatum was injected in a mouse model of infection, it did not cause disease. Further, treated mice were protected when challenged with the virulent fungal parental strain. Attenuation of virulence in MPhi of two evolutionarily distant pathogens was obtained by genetic modification of the MPS, suggesting that this is a new method that may be used to produce attenuation or loss of virulence in both other intracellular prokaryotic and eukaryotic pathogens. This new procedure to generate attenuated forms of pathogens may be used eventually to produce a novel class of vaccines based on the genetic manipulation of a pathogen's membrane fluid state and stress response.

Delineating the Rules for Structural Adaptation of Membrane-Associated Proteins to Evolutionary Changes in Membrane Lipidome.

Membrane function is fundamental to life. Each species explores membrane lipid diversity within a genetically predefined range of possibilities. How membrane lipid composition in turn defines the functional space available for evolution of membrane-centered processes remains largely unknown. We address this fundamental question using related fission yeasts Schizosaccharomyces pombe and Schizosaccharomyces japonicus. We show that, unlike S. pombe that generates membranes where both glycerophospholipid acyl tails are predominantly 16-18 carbons long, S. japonicus synthesizes unusual "asymmetrical" glycerophospholipids where the tails differ in length by 6-8 carbons. This results in stiffer bilayers with distinct lipid packing properties. Retroengineered S. pombe synthesizing the S.-japonicus-type phospholipids exhibits unfolded protein response and downregulates secretion. Importantly, our protein sequence comparisons and domain swap experiments support the hypothesis that transmembrane helices co-evolve with membranes, suggesting that, on the evolutionary scale, changes in membrane lipid composition may necessitate extensive adaptation of the membrane-associated proteome.

Membrane-regulated stress response: a theoretical and practical approach.

Anumber of observations have lent support to a model in which thermal stress is transduced into a signal at the level of the cellular membranes. Our alternative, but not exclusive, approach is based on the concept that the initial stress-sensing events are associated with the physical state and lipid composition of cellular membranes, i.e., the subtle alteration(s) of membrane fluidity, phase state, and/or microheterogeneity may operate as a cellular thermometer. In fact, various pathological states and aging are associated with typical "membrane defects" and simultaneous dysregulation of heat shock protein synthesis. The discovery of nonproteotoxic membrane-lipid interacting compounds, capable of modulating membrane microdomains engaged in primary stress sensing may be of paramount importance for the design of new drugs with the ability to induce or attenuate the level of particular heat shock proteins.

Metabolic crosstalk between membrane and storage lipids facilitates heat stress management in Schizosaccharomyces pombe.

Cell membranes actively participate in stress sensing and signalling. Here we present the first in-depth lipidomic analysis to characterize alterations in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe in response to mild heat stress (HS). The lipidome was assessed by a simple one-step methanolic extraction. Genetic manipulations that altered triglyceride (TG) content in the absence or presence of HS gave rise to distinct lipidomic fingerprints for S. pombe. Cells unable to produce TG demonstrated long-lasting growth arrest and enhanced signalling lipid generation. Our results reveal that metabolic crosstalk between membrane and storage lipids facilitates homeostatic maintenance of the membrane physical/chemical state that resists negative effects on cell growth and viability in response to HS. We propose a novel stress adaptation mechanism in which heat-induced TG synthesis contributes to membrane rigidization by accommodating unsaturated fatty acids of structural lipids, enabling their replacement by newly synthesized saturated fatty acids.

Involvement of small heat shock proteins, trehalose, and lipids in the thermal stress management in Schizosaccharomyces pombe.

Changes in the levels of three structurally and functionally different important thermoprotectant molecules, namely small heat shock proteins (sHsps), trehalose, and lipids, have been investigated upon heat shock in Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Both α-crystallin-type sHsps (Hsp15.8 and Hsp16) were induced after prolonged high-temperature treatment but with different kinetic profiles. The shsp null mutants display a weak, but significant, heat sensitivity indicating their importance in the thermal stress management. The heat induction of sHsps is different in wild type and in highly heat-sensitive trehalose-deficient (tps1Δ) cells; however, trehalose level did not show significant alteration in shsp mutants. The altered timing of trehalose accumulation and induction of sHsps suggest that the disaccharide might provide protection at the early stage of the heat stress while elevated amount of sHsps are required at the later phase. The cellular lipid compositions of two different temperature-adapted wild-type S. pombe cells are also altered according to the rule of homeoviscous adaptation, indicating their crucial role in adapting to the environmental temperature changes. Both Hsp15.8 and Hsp16 are able to bind to different lipids isolated from S. pombe, whose interaction might provide a powerful protection against heat-induced damages of the membranes. Our data suggest that all the three investigated thermoprotectant macromolecules play a pivotal role during the thermal stress management in the fission yeast.

Key role of lipids in heat stress management.

Heat stress is a common and, therefore, an important environmental impact on cells and organisms. While much attention has been paid to severe heat stress, moderate temperature elevations are also important. Here we discuss temperature sensing and how responses to heat stress are not necessarily dependent on denatured proteins. Indeed, it is clear that membrane lipids have a pivotal function. Details of membrane lipid changes and the associated production of signalling metabolites are described and suggestions made as to how the interconnected signalling network could be modified for helpful intervention in disease.

Hydroximic acid derivatives: pleiotropic HSP co-inducers restoring homeostasis and robustness.

According to the "membrane sensor" hypothesis, the membrane's physical properties and microdomain organization play an initiating role in the heat shock response. Clinical conditions such as cancer, diabetes and neurodegenerative diseases are all coupled with specific changes in the physical state and lipid composition of cellular membranes and characterized by altered heat shock protein levels in cells suggesting that these "membrane defects" can cause suboptimal hsp-gene expression. Such observations provide a new rationale for the introduction of novel, heat shock protein modulating drug candidates. Intercalating compounds can be used to alter membrane properties and by doing so normalize dysregulated expression of heat shock proteins, resulting in a beneficial therapeutic effect for reversing the pathological impact of disease. The membrane (and lipid) interacting hydroximic acid (HA) derivatives discussed in this review physiologically restore the heat shock protein stress response, creating a new class of "membrane-lipid therapy" pharmaceuticals. The diseases that HA derivatives potentially target are diverse and include, among others, insulin resistance and diabetes, neuropathy, atrial fibrillation, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. At a molecular level HA derivatives are broad spectrum, multi-target compounds as they fluidize yet stabilize membranes and remodel their lipid rafts while otherwise acting as PARP inhibitors. The HA derivatives have the potential to ameliorate disparate conditions, whether of acute or chronic nature. Many of these diseases presently are either untreatable or inadequately treated with currently available pharmaceuticals. Ultimately, the HA derivatives promise to play a major role in future pharmacotherapy.

Heat shock response in photosynthetic organisms: membrane and lipid connections.

The ability of photosynthetic organisms to adapt to increases in environmental temperatures is becoming more important with climate change. Heat stress is known to induce heat-shock proteins (HSPs) many of which act as chaperones. Traditionally, it has been thought that protein denaturation acts as a trigger for HSP induction. However, increasing evidence has shown that many stress events cause HSP induction without commensurate protein denaturation. This has led to the membrane sensor hypothesis where the membrane's physical and structural properties play an initiating role in the heat shock response. In this review, we discuss heat-induced modulation of the membrane's physical state and changes to these properties which can be brought about by interaction with HSPs. Heat stress also leads to changes in lipid-based signaling cascades and alterations in calcium transport and availability. Such observations emphasize the importance of membranes and their lipids in the heat shock response and provide a new perspective for guiding further studies into the mechanisms that mediate cellular and organismal responses to heat stress.

Membrane-lipid therapy in operation: the HSP co-inducer BGP-15 activates stress signal transduction pathways by remodeling plasma membrane rafts.

Aging and pathophysiological conditions are linked to membrane changes which modulate membrane-controlled molecular switches, causing dysregulated heat shock protein (HSP) expression. HSP co-inducer hydroxylamines such as BGP-15 provide advanced therapeutic candidates for many diseases since they preferentially affect stressed cells and are unlikely have major side effects. In the present study in vitro molecular dynamic simulation, experiments with lipid monolayers and in vivo ultrasensitive fluorescence microscopy showed that BGP-15 alters the organization of cholesterol-rich membrane domains. Imaging of nanoscopic long-lived platforms using the raft marker glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored monomeric green fluorescent protein diffusing in the live Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell plasma membrane demonstrated that BGP-15 prevents the transient structural disintegration of rafts induced by fever-type heat stress. Moreover, BGP-15 was able to remodel cholesterol-enriched lipid platforms reminiscent of those observed earlier following non-lethal heat priming or membrane stress, and were shown to be obligate for the generation and transmission of stress signals. BGP-15 activation of HSP expression in B16-F10 mouse melanoma cells involves the Rac1 signaling cascade in accordance with the previous observation that cholesterol affects the targeting of Rac1 to membranes. Finally, in a human embryonic kidney cell line we demonstrate that BGP-15 is able to inhibit the rapid heat shock factor 1 (HSF1) acetylation monitored during the early phase of heat stress, thereby promoting a prolonged duration of HSF1 binding to heat shock elements. Taken together, our results indicate that BGP-15 has the potential to become a new class of pharmaceuticals for use in 'membrane-lipid therapy' to combat many various protein-misfolding diseases associated with aging.

Only one dnaK homolog, dnaK2, is active transcriptionally and is essential in Synechocystis.

We examined the expression and the function of the DnaK chaperone family in the photoautotrophic cyanobacterium, Synechocystis PCC 6803. Surprisingly, only one of the three dnaK genes was transcribed either under normal or heat shock conditions. Their predicted cochaperones (four dnaJs and one grpE) proved to be uninducible under our experimental conditions. Attempts to inactivate the active dnaK2 has failed, indicating that the gene is essential. The partial mutant displayed lower inducibility of chaperones (especially GroEL and HSP17) both at mRNA and protein levels upon heat shock. The mutant showed temperature sensitive phenotype, but was able to acquire thermotolerance.