Heterotrimeric G Protein Subunit Gαq Is a Master Switch for Gßγ-Mediated Calcium Mobilization by Gi-Coupled GPCRs.

Mechanisms that control mobilization of cytosolic calcium [Ca2+]i are key for regulation of numerous eukaryotic cell functions. One such paradigmatic mechanism involves activation of phospholipase Cß (PLCß) enzymes by G protein ßγ subunits from activated Gαi-Gßγ heterotrimers. Here, we report identification of a master switch to enable this control for PLCß enzymes in living cells. We find that the Gαi-Gßγ-PLCß-Ca2+ signaling module is entirely dependent on the presence of active Gαq. If Gαq is pharmacologically inhibited or genetically ablated, Gßγ can bind to PLCß but does not elicit Ca2+ signals. Removal of an auto-inhibitory linker that occludes the active site of the enzyme is required and sufficient to empower "stand-alone control" of PLCß by Gßγ. This dependence of Gi-Gßγ-Ca2+ on Gαq places an entire signaling branch of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) under hierarchical control of Gq and changes our understanding of how Gi-GPCRs trigger [Ca2+]i via PLCß enzymes.

CNS myelin protein 36K regulates oligodendrocyte differentiation through Notch.

In contrast to humans and other mammals, zebrafish can successfully regenerate and remyelinate central nervous system (CNS) axons following injury. In addition to common myelin proteins found in mammalian myelin, 36K protein is a major component of teleost fish CNS myelin. Although 36K is one of the most abundant proteins in zebrafish brain, its function remains unknown. Here we investigate the function of 36K using translation-blocking Morpholinos. Morphant larvae showed fewer dorsally migrated oligodendrocyte precursor cells as well as upregulation of Notch ligand. A gamma secretase inhibitor, which prevents activation of Notch, could rescue oligodendrocyte precursor cell numbers in 36K morphants, suggesting that 36K regulates initial myelination through inhibition of Notch signaling. Since 36K like other short chain dehydrogenases might act on lipids, we performed thin layer chromatography and mass spectrometry of lipids and found changes in lipid composition in 36K morphant larvae. Altogether, we suggest that during early development 36K regulates membrane lipid composition, thereby altering the amount of transmembrane Notch ligands and the efficiency of intramembrane gamma secretase processing of Notch and thereby influencing oligodendrocyte precursor cell differentiation and further myelination. Further studies on the role of 36K short chain dehydrogenase in oligodendrocyte precursor cell differentiation during remyelination might open up new strategies for remyelination therapies in human patients.

A systematic study on the influence of the main ingredients of an ivy leaves dry extract on the ß2-adrenergic responsiveness of human airway smooth muscle cells.

The bronchospasmolytic and secretolytic effects of ivy leaves dry extracts can be explained by an increased ß2-adrenergic responsiveness of the bronchi. Recently, it was shown that α-hederin inhibits the internalization of ß2-adrenergic receptors (ß2AR) under stimulating conditions. α-Hederin pretreated alveolar type II cells and human airway smooth muscle cells revealed an increased ß2AR binding and an elevated intracellular cAMP level, respectively. In order to identify whether additional compounds also mediate an increased ß2-adrenergic responsiveness, we examined the ingredients of an ivy leaves dry extract (EA 575) protocatechuic acid, neochlorogenic acid, chlorogenic acid, cryptochlorogenic acid, rutin, kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside, 3,4-, 3,5- and 4,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid, hederacoside B, and ß-hederin. Within all the tested substances, only ß-hederin inhibited the internalization of GFP-tagged ß2AR in stably transfected HEK293 cells. Using fluorescence correlation spectroscopy ß-hederin (1 µM, 24 h) pretreated HASM cells showed a statistically significant increase in the ß2AR binding from 33.0 ± 8.9% to 44.1 ± 11.5% which was distributed with 36.0 ± 9.5% for τbound1 and 8.1 ± 2.6% for τbound2, respectively (n = 8, p < 0.05). The increased binding was selectively found for the receptor-ligand complex with unrestricted lateral mobility (τbound1 of 0.9 ± 0.1 ms, D1 = 9.1 ± 0.2 µm(2)/s, n = 8), whereas the binding of ß2AR with hindered lateral mobility (τbound2 of 64.2 ± 47.6 ms, D2 = 0.15 ± 0.02 µm(2)/s, n = 8) was not affected. Compared to control cells, a statistically significant increase of 17.5 ± 6.4% (n = 4, p < 0.05) and 24.2 ± 5.8% (n = 4, p < 0.001) in the cAMP formation was found for ß-hederin pretreated HASM cells after stimulation with 10 µM of terbutaline and simultaneous stimulation with 10 µM terbutaline and 10 µM forskolin, respectively. Within this systematic study focusing on the influence of the ingredients of an ivy leaves dry extract on HASM cells it was possible to identify ß-hederin as further component presumably responsible for the ß2-mimetic effects.

Humanized zebrafish as a tractable tool for in vivo evaluation of pro-myelinating drugs.

Therapies that promote neuroprotection and axonal survival by enhancing myelin regeneration are an unmet need to prevent disability progression in multiple sclerosis. Numerous potentially beneficial compounds have originated from phenotypic screenings but failed in clinical trials. It is apparent that current cell- and animal-based disease models are poor predictors of positive treatment options, arguing for novel experimental approaches. Here we explore the experimental power of humanized zebrafish to foster the identification of pro-remyelination compounds via specific inhibition of GPR17. Using biochemical and imaging techniques, we visualize the expression of zebrafish (zf)-gpr17 during the distinct stages of oligodendrocyte development, thereby demonstrating species-conserved expression between zebrafish and mammals. We also demonstrate species-conserved function of zf-Gpr17 using genetic loss-of-function and rescue techniques. Finally, using GPR17-humanized zebrafish, we provide proof of principle for in vivo analysis of compounds acting via targeted inhibition of human GPR17. We anticipate that GPR17-humanized zebrafish will markedly improve the search for effective pro-myelinating pharmacotherapies.

Glutaredoxin 2 promotes SP-1-dependent CSPG4 transcription and migration of wound healing NG2 glia and glioma cells: Enzymatic Taoism.

Redox regulation of specific cysteines via oxidoreductases of the thioredoxin family is increasingly being recognized as an important signaling pathway. Here, we demonstrate that the cytosolic isoform of the vertebrate-specific oxidoreductase Glutaredoxin 2 (Grx2c) regulates the redox state of the transcription factor SP-1 and thereby its binding affinity to both the promoter and an enhancer region of the CSPG4 gene encoding chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan nerve/glial antigen 2 (NG2). This leads to an increased number of NG2 glia during in vitro oligodendroglial differentiation and promotes migration of these wound healing cells. On the other hand, we found that the same mechanism also leads to increased invasion of glioma tumor cells. Using in vitro (human cell lines), ex vivo (mouse primary cells), and in vivo models (zebrafish), as well as glioblastoma patient tissue samples we provide experimental data highlighting the Yin and Yang of redox signaling in the central nervous system and the enzymatic Taoism of Grx2c.

A comparative study on the influence of an ivy preparation and an ivy/thyme combination on the ß2-adrenergic signal transduction.

The ß2-adrenergic receptor (ß2AR) is relevant for surfactant formation in alveolar type 2 cells and reduction of intracellular calcium concentration in bronchial muscle cells and thus for secretolytic and bronchospasmolytic effects. Herbal medicinal products that affect the ß2AR system are used to treat common cold and bronchitis accompanied with mucus covered and narrowed airways. The present work compares the influence of an ivy preparation and an ivy/thyme combination on the ß2-adrenergic signal transduction. For receptor binding studies and characterization of the lateral mobility of ß2AR we have used single molecule detection by fluorescence correlation spectroscopy and single particle tracking. For the determination of both the second messenger cAMP and the internalization of ß2AR we have generated luciferase based reporter cell lines, which produce a cAMP-dependent luciferase in the cytosol and express ß2AR with extracellular luciferase moiety in the plasma membrane. While both preparations increased the ß2AR binding, a significant increase of the cAMP level was observed only for the ivy preparation, which can be explained by the inhibited internalization of HiBiT-tagged ß2AR under stimulating conditions. In contrast, isoprenaline-mediated internalization of HiBiT-tagged ß2AR of ivy/thyme combination pre-treated cells was not inhibited. Cells comparatively pre-treated with a thyme preparation did not show inhibition of ß2AR internalization either. Furthermore, SNAP-tagged ß2AR of ivy preparation pre-treated cells, which were not internalized after isoprenaline stimulation, showed a redistribution from fast-to-slowly diffusing ß2AR. A corresponding redistribution of these receptors was not observed after pre-treatment with both the ivy/thyme combination and the thyme preparation. Comparable to the ivy/thyme combination, no decrease in the intratrack transitioning probability ratio (p23/p32) for fast and slow diffusing ß2AR was found for the thyme preparation, which, however, significantly decreased for control cells and for pre-treatment with the ivy preparation under stimulating conditions. It can therefore be concluded that the thyme fluid extract fraction in the ivy/thyme combination may have in part a negative effect on the ß2-adrenergic signal transduction.

Direct targeting of Gαq and Gα11 oncoproteins in cancer cells.

Somatic gain-of-function mutations of GNAQ and GNA11, which encode α subunits of heterotrimeric Gαq/11 proteins, occur in about 85% of cases of uveal melanoma (UM), the most common cancer of the adult eye. Molecular therapies to directly target these oncoproteins are lacking, and current treatment options rely on radiation, surgery, or inhibition of effector molecules downstream of these G proteins. A hallmark feature of oncogenic Gαq/11 proteins is their reduced intrinsic rate of hydrolysis of guanosine triphosphate (GTP), which results in their accumulation in the GTP-bound, active state. Here, we report that the cyclic depsipeptide FR900359 (FR) directly interacted with GTPase-deficient Gαq/11 proteins and preferentially inhibited mitogenic ERK signaling rather than canonical phospholipase Cß (PLCß) signaling driven by these oncogenes. Thereby, FR suppressed the proliferation of melanoma cells in culture and inhibited the growth of Gαq-driven UM mouse xenografts in vivo. In contrast, FR did not affect tumor growth when xenografts carried mutated B-RafV600E as the oncogenic driver. Because FR enabled suppression of malignant traits in cancer cells that are driven by activating mutations at codon 209 in Gαq/11 proteins, we envision that similar approaches could be taken to blunt the signaling of non-Gαq/11 G proteins.

Label-Free Whole Cell Biosensing for High-Throughput Discovery of Activators and Inhibitors Targeting G Protein-Activated Inwardly Rectifying Potassium Channels.

Dynamic mass redistribution (DMR) and cellular dielectric spectroscopy (CDS) are label-free biosensor technologies that capture real-time integrated cellular responses upon exposure to extra- and intracellular stimuli. They register signaling routes that are accompanied by cell shape changes and/or molecular movement of cells proximal to the biosensor to which they are attached. Here, we report the unexpected observation that robust DMR and CDS signatures are also elicited upon direct stimulation of G protein-activated inwardly rectifying potassium (GIRK) channels, which are involved in the regulation of excitability in the heart and brain. Using ML297, a small-molecule GIRK activator, along with channel blockers and cytoskeletal network inhibitors, we found that GIRK activation exerts its effects on cell shape by a mechanism which depends on actin but not the microtubule network. Because label-free real-time biosensing (i) quantitatively determines concentration dependency of GIRK activators, (ii) accurately assesses the impact of GIRK channel blockers, (iii) is high throughput-compatible, and (iv) visualizes previously unknown cellular consequences downstream of direct GIRK activation, we do not only provide a novel experimental strategy for identification of GIRK ligands but also an entirely new angle to probe GIRK (ligand) biology. We envision that DMR and CDS may add to the repertoire of technologies for systematic exploitation of ion channel function and, in turn, to the identification of novel GIRK ligands in order to treat cardiovascular and neurological disorders.

α-Hederin inhibits G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2-mediated phosphorylation of ß2-adrenergic receptors.

BACKGROUND: Recently is has been shown that α- and ß-hederin increase the ß2-adrenergic responsiveness of alveolar type II cells (A549) and human airway smooth muscle cells (HASM), respectively, by inhibiting the internalization of ß2-adrenergic receptors (ß2AR) under stimulating conditions. Internalization of ß2AR is initiated by phosphorylations of certain serines and threonines by cAMP dependent protein kinase A (PKA) and G protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRK). PURPOSE: To evaluate the effect of α-hederin on PKA and GRK2 mediated phosphorylation of GFP-tagged ß2AR. STUDY DESIGN: To study this process we performed In-Cell Western using isoprenaline stimulated HEK293 cells overexpressing ß2AR as GFP fusion protein and specific antibodies against PKA (Ser345/346) and GRK2 (Ser355/356) phosphorylation sites. RESULTS: There was no effect found on the PKA mediated phosphorylation (n = 14) but we could show that α-hederin (1 µM, 12 h) significantly inhibits GRK2 mediated phosphorylation at Ser355/356 by 11 ± 5% (n ≥ 29, p ≤ 0.01) under stimulating conditions compared to the positive control. In Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) experiments using the isolated kinases in solution α-hederin did not show any influence neither to GRK2 nor to PKA. CONCLUSION: Taken together, these results indicate that α-hederin acts as an indirect GRK2 inhibitor leading to a reduced homologous desensitization of ß2AR-GFP in HEK293 cells.