Symmetry and spatial ability enhance change detection in visuospatial structures.

Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) domains require people to recognize and transform complex visuospatial displays that appear to vastly exceed the limits of visuospatial working memory. Here, we consider possible domain-general mechanisms that may explain this advantage: capitalizing on symmetry, a structural regularity that can produce more efficient representations. Participants briefly viewed a structure made up of three-dimensional connected cubes of different colors, which was either asymmetrical or symmetrical. After a short delay, they were asked to detect a change (colors swapping positions) within a rotated second view. In change trials, the second display always had an asymmetrical structure. The presence of symmetry in the initial view improved change detection, and performance also declined with angular disparity of the encoding and test displays. People with higher spatial ability performed better on the change-detection task, but there was no evidence that they were better at leveraging symmetry than low-spatial individuals. The results suggest that leveraging symmetrical structures can help people of all ability levels exceed typical working memory limits by constructing more efficient representations and substituting resource-demanding mental rotation operations with alternative orientation-independent strategies.

Age-Related Changes in Spatial Navigation Are Evident by Midlife and Differ by Sex.

Accumulating evidence suggests that distinct aspects of successful navigation-path integration, spatial-knowledge acquisition, and navigation strategies-change with advanced age. Yet few studies have established whether navigation deficits emerge early in the aging process (prior to age 65) or whether early age-related deficits vary by sex. Here, we probed healthy young adults (ages 18-28) and midlife adults (ages 43-61) on three essential aspects of navigation. We found, first, that path-integration ability shows negligible effects of sex or age. Second, robust sex differences in spatial-knowledge acquisition are observed not only in young adulthood but also, although with diminished effect, at midlife. Third, by midlife, men and women show decreased ability to acquire spatial knowledge and increased reliance on taking habitual paths. Together, our findings indicate that age-related changes in navigation ability and strategy are evident as early as midlife and that path-integration ability is spared, to some extent, in the transition from youth to middle age.

A computerized spatial orientation test.

In three experiments, we compared performance on a paper-based perspective-taking task (the Spatial Orientation Test [SOT]; Hegarty & Waller, 2004) with performance on a computer-based version of the task. The computer-based version automates scoring angular errors, allows for different stimulus orders to be given to each participant, and allows for different testing time limits. In Experiment 1, the two media used different objects and mirror-image stimulus arrays in the two versions to mitigate the effects of memory for specific objects or responses. In Experiments 2 and 3, the two media used identical objects (also in a mirrored arrangement), to provide a more equivalent between-media comparison. We also substituted new objects for objects in the original version that had an inherent front/back (e.g., a car) and/or that were animate; directional or animate objects may add variance that is unrelated to perspective-taking ability. Experiment 3 used clarified instructions and a sample size sufficient to examine relatively small differences between the media as well as sex differences. Overall, the computer-based version produced performance that was similar to that of the paper-based version in terms of the rank-order of the participants. The new computer and paper versions of the SOT also had similar correlations with the Money Road Map test and the Santa Barbara Sense of Direction questionnaire, adding support to the claim that the computerized SOT is tapping into the same skill as the paper-based version. We provide a Java version of the new SOT, along with pdf files of instructions and practice stimuli, on the Open Science Framework website.

Instructions matter: Individual differences in navigation strategy and ability.

Individual differences in navigation strategy in the dual-solution paradigm (DSP) indicate that some people prefer to take learned routes, while others prefer to take shortcuts (Boone, Gong, & Hegarty, Memory & Cognition, 46, 909-922, 2018; Marchette, Bakker, & Shelton, Journal of Neuroscience, 31, 15264-15268, 2011). Although work using the DSP has highlighted biases toward certain navigation strategies within individuals, a question remains as to why navigators do show a bias. Here, we questioned whether a bias toward navigation by learned routes indicates inability to take shortcuts, or whether other factors are at play, such as task demands and preferences. In two experiments, we began to untangle the association between the ability to construct survey knowledge, which is necessary if one is to take shortcuts (i.e., competence), and navigation strategy (i.e., performance) in virtual-reality navigation. Participants learned a route through a virtual environment and then navigated to goal locations in two experimental sessions. In Experiment 1, each participant navigated under two different instructions ("go to the goal" vs. "take the shortest path to the goal"), whereas in Experiment 2 two groups navigated under the same instructions in both sessions. Converging results from these experiments indicated that participants used more shortcuts overall under the shortcut instructions, and that this was not attributable to additional task exposure. Men were more likely to take shortcuts, under both the standard and shortcut instructions. This work indicates that the use of learned routes in the DSP does not necessarily imply that a person cannot take a shortcut, highlighting a dissociation between strategy and ability.

Spatial perspective taking: Effects of social, directional, and interactive cues.

Including an avatar in the array in a spatial perspective-taking test improves performance, but it is not clear why. Different aspects of an avatar, including its directional nature, its agency (perceived ability for action), and its interactivity, may all influence perspective-taking performance. Experiment 1 examined how performance was influenced by a social directional cue (an avatar) and an abstract directional cue (an arrow). Participants performed best in the avatar condition and no better in the arrow condition than in a control condition. These results suggest that directionality of the cue alone is not sufficient to facilitate performance on this task. Experiment 2 compared an avatar to a concrete directional cue that was grounded in everyday experience interacting with objects, but was non-agentive (a chair). There was no significant difference between the avatar and the chair conditions, which both outperformed the control condition. Participants in both experiments and all conditions primarily reported utilizing mental simulation strategies that involved imagining themselves in the array of objects. The results suggest that grounding the task in everyday interactions with people or objects facilitates this mental simulation process and more generally enhances performance on perspective-taking tasks.

Inhalational versus Intravenous Induction of Anesthesia in Children with a High Risk of Perioperative Respiratory Adverse Events: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: Limited evidence suggests that children have a lower incidence of perioperative respiratory adverse events when intravenous propofol is used compared with inhalational sevoflurane for the anesthesia induction. Limiting these events can improve recovery time as well as decreasing surgery waitlists and healthcare costs. This single center open-label randomized controlled trial assessed the impact of the anesthesia induction technique on the occurrence of perioperative respiratory adverse events in children at high risk of those events. METHODS: Children (N = 300; 0 to 8 yr) with at least two clinically relevant risk factors for perioperative respiratory adverse events and deemed suitable for either technique of anesthesia induction were recruited and randomized to either intravenous propofol or inhalational sevoflurane. The primary outcome was the difference in the rate of occurrence of perioperative respiratory adverse events between children receiving intravenous induction and those receiving inhalation induction of anesthesia. RESULTS: Children receiving intravenous propofol were significantly less likely to experience perioperative respiratory adverse events compared with those who received inhalational sevoflurane after adjusting for age, sex, American Society of Anesthesiologists physical status and weight (perioperative respiratory adverse event: 39/149 [26%] vs. 64/149 [43%], relative risk [RR]: 1.7, 95% CI: 1.2 to 2.3, P = 0.002, respiratory adverse events at induction: 16/149 [11%] vs. 47/149 [32%], RR: 3.06, 95% CI: 1.8 to 5. 2, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Where clinically appropriate, anesthesiologists should consider using an intravenous propofol induction technique in children who are at high risk of experiencing perioperative respiratory adverse events. VISUAL ABSTRACT: An online visual overview is available for this article at http://links.lww.com/ALN/B725.

Sex differences in navigation strategy and efficiency.

Research on human navigation has indicated that males and females differ in self-reported navigation strategy as well as objective measures of navigation efficiency. In two experiments, we investigated sex differences in navigation strategy and efficiency using an objective measure of strategy, the dual-solution paradigm (DSP; Marchette, Bakker, & Shelton, 2011). Although navigation by shortcuts and learned routes were the primary strategies used in both experiments, as in previous research on the DSP, individuals also utilized route reversals and sometimes found the goal location as a result of wandering. Importantly, sex differences were found in measures of both route selection and navigation efficiency. In particular, males were more likely to take shortcuts and reached their goal location faster than females, while females were more likely to follow learned routes and wander. Self-report measures of strategy were only weakly correlated with objective measures of strategy, casting doubt on their usefulness. This research indicates that the sex difference in navigation efficiency is large, and only partially related to an individual's navigation strategy as measured by the dual-solution paradigm.

Population-Based System of Parenting Support to Reduce the Prevalence of Child Social, Emotional, and Behavioural Problems: Difference-In-Differences Study.

The quality of parenting is recognised as an important determinant of children's mental health. Parenting interventions typically target high-risk families rather than adopting a universal approach. This study examined the population impact of the Triple P Positive Parenting Programme on the prevalence of children's social, emotional, and behavioural problems. A propensity score matching difference-in-differences method was used to compare intervention and comparison regions matched on socio-demographic characteristics in midlands Ireland. The pre-intervention sample included 1501 and 1495 parents of children aged 4-8 years in the intervention and comparison regions respectively. The post-intervention sample included 1521 and 1544 parents respectively. The primary outcome measure was parental reports on the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. There were some significant reductions in the prevalence rates of social, emotional, and behavioural problems in the intervention regions compared to the comparison regions. Children in the intervention sample experienced lower total difficulties, emotional symptoms, and conduct problems than children in the comparison sample, and they were less at risk of scoring within the borderline/abnormal range for total difficulties, conduct problems, and hyperactivity. The programme reduced the proportion of children scoring within the borderline/abnormal range by 4.7% for total difficulties, 4.4% for conduct problems, and 4.5% for hyperactivity in the total population. This study demonstrated that a universal parenting programme implemented at multiple levels using a partnership approach may be an effective population health approach to targeting child mental health.

The Human Retrosplenial Cortex and Thalamus Code Head Direction in a Global Reference Frame.

UNLABELLED: Spatial navigation is a multisensory process involving integration of visual and body-based cues. In rodents, head direction (HD) cells, which are most abundant in the thalamus, integrate these cues to code facing direction. Human fMRI studies examining HD coding in virtual environments (VE) have reported effects in retrosplenial complex and (pre-)subiculum, but not the thalamus. Furthermore, HD coding appeared insensitive to global landmarks. These tasks, however, provided only visual cues for orientation, and attending to global landmarks did not benefit task performance. In the present study, participants explored a VE comprising four separate locales, surrounded by four global landmarks. To provide body-based cues, participants wore a head-mounted display so that physical rotations changed facing direction in the VE. During subsequent MRI scanning, subjects saw stationary views of the environment and judged whether their orientation was the same as in the preceding trial. Parameter estimates extracted from retrosplenial cortex and the thalamus revealed significantly reduced BOLD responses when HD was repeated. Moreover, consistent with rodent findings, the signal did not continue to adapt over repetitions of the same HD. These results were supported by a whole-brain analysis showing additional repetition suppression in the precuneus. Together, our findings suggest that: (1) consistent with the rodent literature, the human thalamus may integrate visual and body-based, orientation cues; (2) global reference frame cues can be used to integrate HD across separate individual locales; and (3) immersive training procedures providing full body-based cues may help to elucidate the neural mechanisms supporting spatial navigation. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: In rodents, head direction (HD) cells signal facing direction in the environment via increased firing when the animal assumes a certain orientation. Distinct brain regions, the retrosplenial cortex (RSC) and thalamus, code for visual and vestibular cues of orientation, respectively. Putative HD signals have been observed in human RSC but not the thalamus, potentially because body-based cues were not provided. Here, participants encoded HD in a novel virtual environment while wearing a head-mounted display to provide body-based cues for orientation. In subsequent fMRI scanning, we found evidence of an HD signal in RSC, thalamus, and precuneus. These findings harmonize rodent and human data, and suggest that immersive training procedures provide a viable way to examine the neural basis of navigation.

A Tale of Two Types of Perspective Taking: Sex Differences in Spatial Ability.

Sex differences in favor of males have been documented in measures of spatial perspective taking. In this research, we examined whether social factors (i.e., stereotype threat and the inclusion of human figures in tasks) account for these differences. In Experiment 1, we evaluated performance when perspective-taking tests were framed as measuring either spatial or social (empathetic) perspective-taking abilities. In the spatial condition, tasks were framed as measures of spatial ability on which males have an advantage. In the social condition, modified tasks contained human figures and were framed as measures of empathy on which females have an advantage. Results showed a sex difference in favor of males in the spatial condition but not the social condition. Experiments 2 and 3 indicated that both stereotype threat and including human figures contributed to these effects. Results suggest that females may underperform on spatial tests in part because of negative performance expectations and the character of the spatial tests rather than because of actual lack of abilities.

Spatial updating of map-acquired representation.

In the present study, we examined whether people can update a map-acquired spatial representation. The participants learned a spatial layout from a map displayed on a computer screen, and then performed spatial judgments at a novel position either in the same room (Exp. 1) or in a distal room (Exp. 2). They were required to imagine the spatial layout from a perspective aligned with the learning direction, aligned with their facing direction during testing, or toward a novel direction misaligned with the two directions mentioned above. In both the immediate and nonimmediate environments, the participants performed better from the learning direction than from the novel direction, and also performed better from the facing direction than from the novel direction. These results reveal that people establish an orientation-specific spatial representation through map learning, and that they can update a map-acquired representation during locomotion.

Prevalence and risk factors for parent-reported recurrent otitis media during early childhood in the Western Australian Pregnancy Cohort (Raine) Study.

AIM: To describe the prevalence and risk factors of recurrent otitis media (rOM) in an urban Australian population at 3 years of age. METHODS: Cross-sectional examination of prevalence and risk factors of rOM in 2280 participants from the Raine Study enrolled from public and private hospitals in Perth, Western Australia, between 1989 and 1991. Parental report questionnaires at 3 years of age were used for rOM identification, with secondary confirmation by otoscopic examination at 1, 2 or 3 years of age. RESULTS: The prevalence of parent-reported rOM was 26.8% (611/2280) and 5.5% (125/2280) for severe rOM in the Study. Independent associations were found between rOM and the presence of older siblings, attendance at day care and the introduction of other milk products at ≤4 months of age. Independent associations for severe rOM were the presence of allergies and attendance at day care. CONCLUSIONS: Prevalence rates of rOM within the Raine Study children are similar to a number of other known cohorts. Parity, presence of allergies, attendance at day care and introduction of other milk products at ≤4 months are highlighted as specific risk factors for rOM in this population and presence of allergies and attendance at day care being risk factors for severe rOM. Diagnosis of rOM by parent report and the delay between data collection and reporting are limitations of this study. However, as there is very limited data on OM in urban, non-Indigenous Australian children, this study improves our understanding of OM for this group.

The 'Can't intubate can't oxygenate' scenario in pediatric anesthesia: a comparison of the Melker cricothyroidotomy kit with a scalpel bougie technique.

BACKGROUND: While the majority of pediatric intubations are uncomplicated, the 'Can't intubate, Can't Oxygenate' scenario (CICO) does occur. With limited management guidelines available, CICO is still a challenge even to experienced pediatric anesthetists. OBJECTIVES: To compare the COOK Melker cricothyroidotomy kit (CM) with a scalpel bougie (SB) technique for success rate and complication rate in a tracheotomy on a cadaveric 'infant airway' animal model. METHODS: Two experienced proceduralists repeatedly attempted tracheotomy in eight rabbits, alternately using CM and SB (4 fr) technique. The first attempt was performed at the level of the first tracheal cartilage with subsequent experimental trials of insertion progressively more caudad. Success was defined as intratracheal placement of cannula as seen on bronchoscope. Complications were assessed both by bronchoscopic and macropathological appearance. RESULTS: 32 attempts were made at tracheotomy. CM had an overall success rate of 100% compared to a 75% success rate for SB. Success rate for the first attempt was dependent on the level of the tracheotomy (Level 1 100%, level 2 62.5% and level 3 & 4 25%). While CM was associated with lateral and/or posterior wall damage on bronchoscopy/macropathology in 6% of 19% and 25% of 50% respectively, the damage observed was greater and more frequent with SB (19%/44% and 31%/50%, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: At level 1, the first attempt success rate was 100% for both devices. Overall CM showed a better success rate than SB; however, both techniques were associated with significant complication rates, which were more pronounced following the scalpel bougie technique.

Comparative analysis of outcome measures used in examining neurodevelopmental effects of early childhood anesthesia exposure.

INTRODUCTION: Immature animals exposed to anesthesia display apoptotic neurodegeneration and neurobehavioral deficits. The safety of anesthetic agents in children has been evaluated using a variety of neurodevelopmental outcome measures with varied results. METHODS: The authors used data from the Western Australian Pregnancy Cohort (Raine) Study to examine the association between exposure to anesthesia in children younger than 3 yr of age and three types of outcomes at age of 10 yr: neuropsychological testing, International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision, Clinical Modification-coded clinical disorders, and academic achievement. The authors' primary analysis was restricted to children with data for all outcomes and covariates from the total cohort of 2,868 children born from 1989 to 1992. The authors used a modified multivariable Poisson regression model to determine the adjusted association of anesthesia exposure with outcomes. RESULTS: Of 781 children studied, 112 had anesthesia exposure. The incidence of deficit ranged from 5.1 to 7.8% in neuropsychological tests, 14.6 to 29.5% in International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision, Clinical Modification-coded outcomes, and 4.2 to 11.8% in academic achievement tests. Compared with unexposed peers, exposed children had an increased risk of deficit in neuropsychological language assessments (Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals Total Score: adjusted risk ratio, 2.47; 95% CI, 1.41 to 4.33, Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals Receptive Language Score: adjusted risk ratio, 2.23; 95% CI, 1.19 to 4.18, and Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals Expressive Language Score: adjusted risk ratio, 2.00; 95% CI, 1.08 to 3.68) and International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision, Clinical Modification-coded language and cognitive disorders (adjusted risk ratio, 1.57; 95% CI, 1.18 to 2.10), but not academic achievement scores. CONCLUSIONS: When assessing cognition in children with early exposure to anesthesia, the results may depend on the outcome measure used. Neuropsychological and International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision, Clinical Modification-coded clinical outcomes showed an increased risk of deficit in exposed children compared with that in unexposed children, whereas academic achievement scores did not. This may explain some of the variation in the literature and underscores the importance of the outcome measures when interpreting studies of cognitive function.

Perception of pediatric pain: a comparison of postoperative pain assessments between child, parent, nurse, and independent observer.

INTRODUCTION: Pain is a subjective experience. In children with limited understanding and communication skills, reliable assessment of pain is challenging. Self-reporting of pain is the gold standard of pain measurement. For children who are unable to self-report their pain, assessments made by their parents are often used as a proxy measure. The validity of this approach has not been conclusively determined. AIM: To investigate differences in the assessment of pediatric pain between children, parents, nurses, and independent observers in the acute postoperative setting. METHOD: Three hundred and seven children (207 verbal, 100 nonverbal) undergoing elective day-case surgery were asked to participate in this quality of care audit. Pain scores given by verbal children, their parents, nurses, and independent observers were collected. A numerical rating scale or the Wong-Baker Faces Pain Scale was used. All participants were blinded from other scorers. RESULTS: For verbal children, scores reported by patients and their parents did not differ significantly. Median [inter-quartile range (IQR)] scores by children, parents, nurses, and independent observers were, respectively, 2.0 (0-4.0), 2.0 (1.0-4.0), 0.0 (0-2.0), and 1.0 (0-2.0). In nonverbal children, median (IQR) scores by parents, nurses, and independent observers were 1.0 (0-3.0), 0 (0-1.0), and 0 (0-2.0), respectively. The agreement between the different scorers was statistically significant. CONCLUSION: Children's pain self-reports should be used wherever possible to guide management, but in their absence, parental pain scores can be reliably used as a surrogate measure. Nurses and independent observers produce lower pain scores than parents or children, which may result in inadequate treatment of pain.

Wayfinding in pairs: comparing the planning and navigation performance of dyads and individuals in a real-world environment.

Navigation is essential to life, and it is cognitively complex, drawing on abilities such as prospective and situated planning, spatial memory, location recognition, and real-time decision-making. In many cases, day-to-day navigation is embedded in a social context where cognition and behavior are shaped by others, but the great majority of existing research in spatial cognition has focused on individuals. The two studies we report here contribute to our understanding of social wayfinding, assessing the performance of paired and individual navigators on a real-world wayfinding task in which they were instructed to minimize time and distance traveled. In the first study, we recruited 30 pairs of friends (familiar dyads); in the second, we recruited 30 solo participants (individuals). We compare the two studies to the results of an earlier study of 30 pairs of strangers (unfamiliar dyads). We draw out differences in performance with respect to spatial, social, and cognitive considerations. Of the three conditions, solo participants were least successful in reaching the destination accurately on their initial attempt. Friends traveled more efficiently than either strangers or individuals. Working with a partner also appeared to lend confidence to wayfinders: dyads of either familiarity type were more persistent than individuals in the navigation task, even after encountering challenges or making incorrect attempts. Route selection was additionally impacted by route complexity and unfamiliarity with the study area. Navigators explicitly used ease of remembering as a planning criterion, and the resulting differences in route complexity likely influenced success during enacted navigation.

How Can We Best Assess Spatial Skills? Practical and Conceptual Challenges.

Spatial thinking skills are associated with performance, persistence, and achievement in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) school subjects. Because STEM knowledge and skills are integral to developing a well-trained workforce within and beyond STEM, spatial skills have become a major focus of cognitive, developmental, and educational research. However, these efforts are greatly hampered by the current lack of access to reliable, valid, and well-normed spatial tests. Although there are hundreds of spatial tests, they are often hard to access and use, and information about their psychometric properties is frequently lacking. Additional problems include (1) substantial disagreement about what different spatial tests measure-even two tests with similar names may measure very different constructs; (2) the inability to measure some STEM-relevant spatial skills by any existing tests; and (3) many tests only being available for specific age groups. The first part of this report delineates these problems, as documented in a series of structured and open-ended interviews and surveys with colleagues. The second part outlines a roadmap for addressing the problems. We present possibilities for developing shared testing systems that would allow researchers to test many participants through the internet. We discuss technological innovations, such as virtual reality, which could facilitate the testing of navigation and other spatial skills. Developing a bank of testing resources will empower researchers and educators to explore and support spatial thinking in their disciplines, as well as drive the development of a comprehensive and coherent theoretical understanding of spatial thinking.

How is GPS used? Understanding navigation system use and its relation to spatial ability.

Given how commonly GPS is now used in everyday navigation, it is surprising how little research has been dedicated to investigating variations in its use and how such variations may relate to navigation ability. The present study investigated general GPS dependence, how people report using GPS in various navigational scenarios, and the relationship between these measures and spatial abilities (assessed by self-report measures and the ability to learn the layout of a novel environment). GPS dependence is an individual's perceived need to use GPS in navigation, and GPS usage is the frequency with which they report using different functions of GPS. The study also assessed whether people modulate reported use of GPS as a function of their familiarity with the location in which they are navigating. In 249 participants over two preregistered studies, reported GPS dependence was negatively correlated with objective navigation performance and self-reported sense of direction, and positively correlated with spatial anxiety. Greater reported use of GPS for turn-by-turn directions was associated with a poorer sense of direction and higher spatial anxiety. People reported using GPS most frequently for time and traffic estimation, regardless of ability. Finally, people reported using GPS less, regardless of ability, when they were more familiar with an environment. Collectively these findings suggest that people moderate their use of GPS, depending on their knowledge, ability, and confidence in their own abilities, and often report using GPS to augment rather than replace spatial environmental knowledge.

Less spatial exploration is associated with poorer spatial memory in midlife adults.

Introduction: Despite its importance for navigation, very little is known about how the normal aging process affects spatial exploration behavior. We aimed to investigate: (1) how spatial exploration behavior may be altered early in the aging process, (2) the relationship between exploration behavior and subsequent spatial memory, and (3) whether exploration behavior can classify participants according to age. Methods: Fifty healthy young (aged 18-28) and 87 healthy midlife adults (aged 43-61) freely explored a desktop virtual maze, learning the locations of nine target objects. Various exploration behaviors (object visits, distance traveled, turns made, etc.) were measured. In the test phase, participants navigated from one target object to another without feedback, and their wayfinding success (% correct trials) was measured. Results: In the exploration phase, midlife adults exhibited less exploration overall compared to young adults, and prioritized learning target object locations over maze layout. In the test phase, midlife adults exhibited less wayfinding success when compared to the young adults. Furthermore, following principal components analysis (PCA), regression analyses indicated that both exploration quantity and quality components were associated with wayfinding success in the midlife group, but not the young adults. Finally, we could classify participants according to age with similar accuracy using either their exploration behavior or wayfinding success scores. Discussion: Our results aid in the understanding of how aging impacts spatial exploration, and encourages future investigations into how pathological aging may affect spatial exploration behavior.

Stress affects navigation strategies in immersive virtual reality.

There are known individual differences in both the ability to learn the layout of novel environments and the flexibility of strategies for navigating known environments. However, it is unclear how navigational abilities are impacted by high-stress scenarios. Here we used immersive virtual reality (VR) to develop a novel behavioral paradigm to examine navigation under dynamically changing situations. We recruited 48 participants (24 female; ages 17-32) to navigate a virtual maze (7.5 m × 7.5 m). Participants learned the maze by moving along a fixed path past the maze's landmarks (paintings). Subsequently, participants experienced either a non-stress condition, or a high-stress condition tasking them with navigating the maze. In the high-stress condition, their initial path was blocked, the environment was darkened, threatening music was played, fog obstructed more distal views of the environment, and participants were given a time limit of 20 s with a countdown timer displayed at the top of their screen. On trials where the path was blocked, we found self-reported stress levels and distance traveled increased while trial completion rate decreased (as compared to non-stressed control trials). On unblocked stress trials, participants were less likely to take a shortcut and consequently navigated less efficiently compared to control trials. Participants with more trait spatial anxiety reported more stress and navigated less efficiently. Overall, our results suggest that navigational abilities change considerably under high-stress conditions.