Dynein-driven transport of T cell receptor microclusters regulates immune synapse formation and T cell activation.

When T cells recognize a peptide-major histocompatibility complex on antigen-presenting cells (APCs), T cell receptor microclusters (TCR-MCs) are generated and move to the center of the T cell-APC interface to form the central supramolecular activation cluster (cSMAC). cSMAC formation depends on stimulation strength and regulates T cell activation. We demonstrate that the dynein motor complex colocalized and coimmunoprecipitated with the TCR complex and that TCR-MCs moved along microtubules (MTs) toward the center of the immune synapse in a dynein-dependent manner to form cSMAC. MTs are located in close proximity to the plasma membrane at the activation site. TCR-MC velocity and cSMAC formation were impaired by dynein or MT inhibitors or by ablation of dynein expression. T cells with impaired cSMAC formation exhibited enhanced cellular activation including protein phosphorylation and interleukin-2 production. These results indicate that cSMAC formation by TCR-MC movement depends on dynein and MTs, and the movement regulates T cell activation.

CRTAM confers late-stage activation of CD8+ T cells to regulate retention within lymph node.

In vivo immune response is triggered in the lymph node, where lymphocytes for entry into, retention at, and migration to effector sites are dynamically regulated. The molecular mechanism underlying retention regulation is the key to elucidating in vivo regulation of immune response. In this study, we describe the function of the adhesion molecule class I-restricted T cell-associated molecule (CRTAM) in regulating CD8+ T cell retention within the lymph node and eventually effector function. We previously identified CRTAM as a receptor predominantly expressed on activated CD8+ T cells, and nectin-like molecule-2 (Necl2) as its ligand. In vivo function of CRTAM-Necl2 interaction was analyzed by generating CRTAM(-/-) mice. CRTAM(-/-) mice exhibited reduced protective immunity against viral infection and impaired autoimmune diabetes induction in vivo. Although Ag-specific CRTAM(-/-) CD8+ T cells showed normal CTL functions in vitro, their number in the draining lymph node was reduced. Because CRTAM+ T cells bound efficiently to Necl2-expressing CD8+ dendritic cells (DCs) that reside in T cell area of lymph node, CRTAM may induce retention by binding to CD8+ DCs at the late stage of activation before proliferation. The CRTAM-mediated late interaction with DCs induced retention of activated CD8+ T cells in an Ag-independent fashion, and this possibly resulted in effective CTL development in the draining lymph node.

Cell type-specific regulation of ITAM-mediated NF-kappaB activation by the adaptors, CARMA1 and CARD9.

Activating NK cell receptors transduce signals through ITAM-containing adaptors, including FcRgamma and DAP12. Although the caspase recruitment domain (CARD)9-Bcl10 complex is essential for FcRgamma/DAP12-mediated NF-kappaB activation in myeloid cells, its involvement in NK cell receptor signaling is unknown. Herein we show that the deficiency of CARMA1 or Bcl10, but not CARD9, resulted in severe impairment of cytokine/chemokine production mediated by activating NK cell receptors due to a selective defect in NF-kappaB activation, whereas cytotoxicity mediated by the same receptors did not require CARMA1-Bcl10-mediated signaling. IkappaB kinase (IKK) activation by direct protein kinase C (PKC) stimulation with PMA plus ionomycin (P/I) was abrogated in CARMA1-deficient NK cells, similar to T and B lymphocytes, whereas CARD9-deficient dendritic cells (DCs) exhibited normal P/I-induced IKK activation. Surprisingly, CARMA1 deficiency also abrogated P/I-induced IKK activation in DCs, indicating that CARMA1 is essential for PKC-mediated NF-kappaB activation in all cell types, although the PKC-CARMA1 axis is not used downstream of myeloid ITAM receptors. Consistently, PKC inhibition abrogated ITAM receptor-mediated activation only in NK cells but not in DCs, suggesting PKC-CARMA1-independent, CARD9-dependent ITAM receptor signaling in myeloid cells. Conversely, the overexpression of CARD9 in CARMA1-deficient cells failed to restore the PKC-mediated NF-kappaB activation. Thus, NF-kappaB activation signaling through ITAM receptors is regulated by a cell type-specific mechanism depending on the usage of adaptors CARMA1 and CARD9, which determines the PKC dependence of the signaling.

CRTAM determines the CD4+ cytotoxic T lymphocyte lineage.

Naive T cells differentiate into various effector T cells, including CD4(+) helper T cell subsets and CD8(+) cytotoxic T cells (CTL). Although cytotoxic CD4(+) T cells (CD4 +: CTL) also develop from naive T cells, the mechanism of development is elusive. We found that a small fraction of CD4(+) T cells that express class I-restricted T cell-associated molecule (CRTAM) upon activation possesses the characteristics of both CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells. CRTAM(+) CD4(+) T cells secrete IFN-γ, express CTL-related genes, such as eomesodermin (Eomes), Granzyme B, and perforin, after cultivation, and exhibit cytotoxic function, suggesting that CRTAM(+) T cells are the precursor of CD4(+)CTL. Indeed, ectopic expression of CRTAM in T cells induced the production of IFN-γ, expression of CTL-related genes, and cytotoxic activity. The induction of CD4(+)CTL and IFN-γ production requires CRTAM-mediated intracellular signaling. CRTAM(+) T cells traffic to mucosal tissues and inflammatory sites and developed into CD4(+)CTL, which are involved in mediating protection against infection as well as inducing inflammatory response, depending on the circumstances, through IFN-γ secretion and cytotoxic activity. These results reveal that CRTAM is critical to instruct the differentiation of CD4(+)CTL through the induction of Eomes and CTL-related gene.

Clustering of CARMA1 through SH3-GUK domain interactions is required for its activation of NF-κB signalling.

CARMA1-mediated NF-κB activation controls lymphocyte activation through antigen receptors and survival of some malignant lymphomas. CARMA1 clusters are formed on physiological receptor-mediated activation or by its oncogenic mutation in activated B-cell-diffuse large B-cell lymphomas (ABC-DLBCLs) with constitutive NF-κB activation. However, regulatory mechanisms and relevance of CARMA1 clusters in the NF-κB pathway are unclear. Here we show that SH3 and GUK domain interactions of CARMA1 link CARMA1 clustering to signal activation. SH3 and GUK domains of CARMA1 interact by either intra- or intermolecular mechanisms, which are required for activation-induced assembly of CARMA1. Disruption of these interactions abolishes the formation of CARMA1 microclusters at the immunological synapse, CARMA-regulated signal activation following antigen receptor stimulation as well as spontaneous CARMA1 clustering and NF-κB activation by the oncogenic CARMA1 mutation in ABC-DLBCLs. Thus, the SH3-GUK interactions that regulate CARMA1 cluster formations are promising therapeutic targets for ABC-DLBCLs.

Nucleic acid sensing by T cells initiates Th2 cell differentiation.

While T-cell responses are directly modulated by Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands, the mechanism and physiological function of nucleic acids (NAs)-mediated T cell costimulation remains unclear. Here we show that unlike in innate cells, T-cell costimulation is induced even by non-CpG DNA and by self-DNA, which is released from dead cells and complexes with antimicrobial peptides or histones. Such NA complexes are internalized by T cells and induce costimulatory responses independently of known NA sensors, including TLRs, RIG-I-like receptors (RLRs), inflammasomes and STING-dependent cytosolic DNA sensors. Such NA-mediated costimulation crucially induces Th2 differentiation by suppressing T-bet expression, followed by the induction of GATA-3 and Th2 cytokines. These findings unveil the function of NA sensing by T cells to trigger and amplify allergic inflammation.

T-cell receptor microclusters critical for T-cell activation are formed independently of lipid raft clustering.

We studied the function of lipid rafts in generation and signaling of T-cell receptor microclusters (TCR-MCs) and central supramolecular activation clusters (cSMACs) at immunological synapse (IS). It has been suggested that lipid raft accumulation creates a platform for recruitment of signaling molecules upon T-cell activation. However, several lipid raft probes did not accumulate at TCR-MCs or cSMACs even with costimulation and the fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) between TCR or LAT and lipid raft probes was not induced at TCR-MCs under the condition of positive induction of FRET between CD3 zeta and ZAP-70. The analysis of LAT mutants revealed that raft association is essential for the membrane localization but dispensable for TCR-MC formation. Careful analysis of the accumulation of raft probes in the cell interface revealed that their accumulation occurred after cSMAC formation, probably due to membrane ruffling and/or endocytosis. These results suggest that lipid rafts control protein translocation to the membrane but are not involved in the clustering of raft-associated molecules and therefore that the lipid rafts do not serve as a platform for T-cell activation.

The adaptor protein CARD9 is essential for the activation of myeloid cells through ITAM-associated and Toll-like receptors.

Immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motifs (ITAMs) are crucial in antigen receptor signaling in acquired immunity. Although receptors associated with the ITAM-bearing adaptors FcRgamma and DAP12 on myeloid cells have been suggested to activate innate immune responses, the mechanism coupling those receptors to 'downstream' signaling events is unclear. The CARMA1-Bcl-10-MALT1 complex is critical for the activation of transcription factor NF-kappaB in lymphocytes but has an unclear function in myeloid cells. Here we report that deletion of the gene encoding the Bcl-10 adaptor-binding partner CARD9 resulted in impaired myeloid cell activation of NF-kappaB signaling by several ITAM-associated receptors. Moreover, CARD9 was required for Toll-like receptor-induced activation of dendritic cells through the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases. Although Bcl10-/- and Card9-/- mice had similar signaling impairment in myeloid cells, Card11-/- (CARMA1-deficient) myeloid cell responses were normal, and although Card11-/- lymphocytes were defective in antigen receptor-mediated activation, Card9-/- lymphocytes were not. Thus, the activation of lymphoid and myeloid cells through ITAM-associated receptors or Toll-like receptors is regulated by CARMA1-Bcl-10 and CARD9-Bcl-10, respectively.