Synthetic Marijuana: Assessment of Usage, Motivation and Associated Risks in Adolescent Substance Users.

Objectives: Use of Synthetic and designer products, including synthetic marijuana (SM), among adolescents poses a major risk to public health. Little is known about the motivating factors of synthetic substance use in adolescents. This study examined the motivations, predictors, perceived risks and benefits, and differences with SM versus natural marijuana among adolescents. Methods: Between April 2016 and May 2018, a convenience sample of adolescents receiving substance use treatment from a local counseling center completed an anonymous survey to assess the use of natural and synthetic marijuana use, the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire to assess levels of current psychiatric symptoms and the Community Assessment of Psychic Experiences-Positive Scale to assess symptoms of psychosis. Results: A total of 80 adolescents (age range of 14-18 years; 71% male; 53% Caucasian) completed the study. Of these, 39 (49%) reported natural marijuana use (natural marijuana users) and 41 (51%) reported both synthetic and natural marijuana use (dual users). The most commonly reported reasons for using SM were its low cost and reduced risk of detection. Participants who were familiar with SM and reported a desire to avoid detection on drug tests were likelier to use SM (all P < .05). Dual users reported more benefits and risks associated with SM use when compared to natural marijuana users (P ⩽ .05). The use of SM also heightened the perceived medical risks of natural marijuana, including seizures and respiratory issues (P < .05), compared with natural marijuana users. While dual users self-reported more conduct (P = .009) and externalizing problems (P = .024) when compared to natural marijuana users, there were no group differences in psychotic symptoms, nor correlations with the frequency of synthetic or natural marijuana use and psychotic symptoms except that persecutory ideation correlated with the frequency of natural marijuana use during the past 12 months (rp = 0.28, P = .04). Conclusions: These results suggest that reports of cost savings, and lack of detection on urine drug screens are common reasons for SM use in adolescents despite being aware of the risks of using SM. Perceived benefits of using synthetics and other novel substances appear diverse, and merit further exploration as a better understanding of what motivates adolescents to use specific novel substances may guide prevention and treatment efforts.

Differential effects of mutant SOD1 on protein structure of skeletal muscle and spinal cord of familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: role of chaperone network.

Protein misfolding is considered to be a potential contributing factor for motor neuron and muscle loss in diseases like Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Several independent studies have demonstrated using over-expressed mutated Cu/Zn-superoxide dismutase (mSOD1) transgenic mouse models which mimic familial ALS (f-ALS), that both muscle and motor neurons undergo degeneration during disease progression. However, it is unknown whether protein conformation of skeletal muscle and spinal cord is equally or differentially affected by mSOD1-induced toxicity. It is also unclear whether heat shock proteins (Hsp's) differentially modulate skeletal muscle and spinal cord protein structure during ALS disease progression. We report three intriguing observations utilizing the f-ALS mouse model and cell-free in vitro system; (i) muscle proteins are equally sensitive to misfolding as spinal cord proteins despite the presence of low level of soluble and absence of insoluble G93A protein aggregate, unlike in spinal cord, (ii) Hsp's levels are lower in muscle compared to spinal cord at any stage of the disease, and (iii) G93ASOD1 enzyme-induced toxicity selectively affects muscle protein conformation over spinal cord proteins. Together, these findings strongly suggest that differential chaperone levels between skeletal muscle and spinal cord may be a critical determinant for G93A-induced protein misfolding in ALS.

Reduced mitochondrial ROS, enhanced antioxidant defense, and distinct age-related changes in oxidative damage in muscles of long-lived Peromyscus leucopus.

Comparing biological processes in closely related species with divergent life spans is a powerful approach to study mechanisms of aging. The oxidative stress hypothesis of aging predicts that longer-lived species would have lower reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and/or an increased antioxidant capacity, resulting in reduced oxidative damage with age than in shorter-lived species. In this study, we measured ROS generation in the young adult animals of the long-lived white-footed mouse, Peromyscus leucopus (maximal life span potential, MLSP = 8 yr) and the common laboratory mouse, Mus musculus (C57BL/6J strain; MLSP = 3.5 yr). Consistent with the hypothesis, our results show that skeletal muscle mitochondria from adult P. leucopus produce less ROS (superoxide and hydrogen peroxide) compared with M. musculus. Additionally, P. leucopus has an increase in the activity of antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase 1, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase 1 at young age. P. leucopus compared with M. musculus display low levels of lipid peroxidation (isoprostanes) throughout life; however, P. leucopus although having elevated protein carbonyls at a young age, the accrual of protein oxidation with age is minimal in contrast to the linear increase in M. musculus. Altogether, the results from young animals are in agreement with the predictions of the oxidative stress hypothesis of aging with the exception of protein carbonyls. Nonetheless, the age-dependent increase in protein carbonyls is more pronounced in short-lived M. musculus, which supports enhanced protein homeostasis in long-lived P. leucopus.

Protein misfolding, mitochondrial dysfunction and muscle loss are not directly dependent on soluble and aggregation state of mSOD1 protein in skeletal muscle of ALS.

Mutant superoxide dismutase 1 (mSOD1) is often found as aggregates at the outer-membrane of mitochondria in motor neurons of various mouse models and familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (f-ALS) patients. It has been postulated that disruption of mitochondrial function by physical association of misfolded mSOD1 aggregates may actually be the trigger for initiation of degeneration of motor neurons in ALS. However, it was not clear if the same mechanism is involved in muscle degeneration and mitochondrial dysfunction in skeletal muscles of ALS. Recent study from our laboratory show that two skeletal muscle proteins, namely creatine kinase (CK) and glyceraldehydes-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) undergo major conformational and functional changes in the f-ALS mouse model of ALS (G93A). In this paper, we report two intriguing observations which are as follows:(i) G93A protein does not form aggregates in skeletal muscle at any stages of disease process probably due to high chymotrypsin-like activity of proteasome and thus G93A protein aggregates have no direct effects on progressive loss of muscle mass and global changes in protein conformation in ALS, and (ii) the soluble G93A protein does not have direct effects on mitochondrial dysfunction as determined by quantifying the release of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in skeletal muscle mitochondria; instead, the proteins affected by G93A possibly affect mitochondrial ROS release. These data strongly suggest for the first time that unlike in motor neurons, the soluble and aggregation states of the G93A protein do not have direct effects on protein misfolding and mitochondrial dysfunction in skeletal muscle during ALS.

PGC-1α protects neurons and alters disease progression in an amyotrophic lateral sclerosis mouse model.

INTRODUCTION: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a devastating neurodegenerative disease. We sought to determine whether peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1α (PGC-1α) would have a beneficial effect on this disease. METHODS: PGC-1α transgenic mice were crossed with SOD1 mutant G93A DL mice. RESULTS: We observed a moderate but non-significant increase in average lifespan in PGC-1α/G93A DL mice, as compared with G93A DL mice (292 ± 3 days vs. 274 ± 7 days). Although the onset of ALS was not altered, progression of the disease was significantly slower (≈34% increase in duration) in the PGC-1α/G93A DL mice. These mice also exhibited markedly improved performance on the rotarod test, and the improved motor activity was associated with a decreased loss of motor neurons and less degeneration of neuromuscular junctions. CONCLUSION: A sustained level of excitatory amino acid transporter protein 2 (EAAT2) in astrocytes of the PGC-1α/G93A DL mice may contribute to neuronal protection.

Lack of methionine sulfoxide reductase A in mice increases sensitivity to oxidative stress but does not diminish life span.

Methionine sulfoxide reductase A (MsrA) repairs oxidized methionine residues within proteins and may also function as a general antioxidant. Previous reports have suggested that modulation of MsrA in mice and mammalian cell culture can affect the accumulation of oxidized proteins and may regulate resistance to oxidative stress. Thus, under the oxidative stress theory of aging, these results would predict that MsrA regulates the aging process in mammals. We show here that MsrA(-/-) mice are more susceptible to oxidative stress induced by paraquat. Skin-derived fibroblasts do not express MsrA, but fibroblasts cultured from MsrA(-/-) mice were, nevertheless, also more susceptible to killing by various oxidative stresses. In contrast to previous reports, we find no evidence for neuromuscular dysfunction in MsrA(-/-) mice in either young adult or in older animals. Most important, we found no difference between MsrA(-/-) and control mice in either their median or maximum life span. Thus, our results show that MsrA regulates sensitivity to oxidative stress in mice but has no effect on aging, as determined by life span.

Genetic ablation of 12/15-lipoxygenase but not 5-lipoxygenase protects against denervation-induced muscle atrophy.

Skeletal muscle atrophy is a debilitating outcome of a number of chronic diseases and conditions associated with loss of muscle innervation by motor neurons, such as aging and neurodegenerative diseases. We previously reported that denervation-induced loss of muscle mass is associated with activation of cytosolic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2), the rate-limiting step for the release of arachidonic acid from membrane phospholipids, which then acts as a substrate for metabolic pathways that generate bioactive lipid mediators. In this study, we asked whether 5- and 12/15-lipoxygenase (LO) lipid metabolic pathways downstream of cPLA2 mediate denervation-induced muscle atrophy in mice. Both 5- and 12/15-LO were activated in response to surgical denervation; however, 12/15-LO activity was increased ~2.5-fold versus an ~1.5-fold increase in activity of 5-LO. Genetic and pharmacological inhibition of 12/15-LO (but not 5-LO) significantly protected against denervation-induced muscle atrophy, suggesting a selective role for the 12/15-LO pathway in neurogenic muscle atrophy. The activation of the 12/15-LO pathway (but not 5-LO) during muscle atrophy increased NADPH oxidase activity, protein ubiquitination, and ubiquitin-proteasome-mediated proteolytic degradation. In conclusion, this study reveals a novel pathway for neurogenic muscle atrophy and suggests that 12/15-LO may be a potential therapeutic target in diseases associated with loss of innervation and muscle atrophy.

Dietary restriction but not rapamycin extends disease onset and survival of the H46R/H48Q mouse model of ALS.

Dietary restriction (DR) and rapamycin (Rapa) have been shown to increase the lifespan of a variety of organisms leading to the speculation that these interventions increase lifespan through related mechanisms. However, both these interventions have a detrimental effect in the G93A mutant mouse model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Our previous work indicated that different ALS SOD1 mutant mouse models differ in disease pathogenesis; therefore in this study we measured the effect of DR and Rapa in a second ALS mutant mouse model (the H46R/H48Q mutant). Interestingly, in mice expressing this mutant SOD1 protein, DR significantly delays disease onset and extends lifespan, while Rapa has no effect. These findings suggest that: (1) the effect of DR in ALS is not mediated through pathways common with Rapa, (2) the deleterious effect of DR and Rapa in the G93A ALS mouse model may not be universal to disease caused by all SOD1 mutations, and (3) the results reinforce our previous conclusions that the pathogenic mechanisms in G93A and H46R/H48Q mice are distinct.

Increased mitochondrial matrix-directed superoxide production by fatty acid hydroperoxides in skeletal muscle mitochondria.

Previous studies have shown that muscle atrophy is associated with mitochondrial dysfunction and an increased rate of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production. We recently demonstrated that fatty acid hydroperoxides (FA-OOHs) are significantly elevated in mitochondria isolated from atrophied muscles. The purpose of this study was to determine whether FA-OOHs can alter skeletal muscle mitochondrial function. We found that FA-OOHs (at low-micromolar concentrations) induce mitochondrial dysfunction assessed by a decrease in the rate of ATP production, oxygen consumption, and activity of respiratory chain complexes I and III. Using methods to distinguish superoxide release toward the matrix and toward the intermembrane space, we demonstrate that FA-OOHs significantly elevate oxidative stress in the mitochondrial matrix (and not the intermembrane space), with complex I as the major site of superoxide production (most probably from a site upstream of the ubiquinone binding site but downstream from the flavin binding site-the iron sulfur clusters). Our results are the first to indicate that FA-OOHs are important modulators of mitochondrial function and oxidative stress in skeletal muscle mitochondria and may play an important role in muscle atrophies that are associated with increased generation of FA-OOHs, e.g., denervation-induced muscle atrophy.

MnSOD deficiency has a differential effect on disease progression in two different ALS mutant mouse models.

Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress are thought to participate in the pathogenesis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of reduced mitochondrial antioxidant defense on lifespan and disease progression in two mouse models of familial ALS (G93A and H46R/H48Q mutant lines) that represent pseudo-wildtype and metal-deficient ALS mutants, respectively. The metal-deficient H46R/H48Q mutant differs from the G93A mutant in that it cannot bind copper in the active site and thus lacks SOD activity. We crossed each of these mutant lines with mice deficient in the mitochondrial matrix antioxidant enzyme MnSOD (Sod2+/- mice). In both high (G93A1Gur) and low (G93ADL) copy G93A strains, MnSOD deficiency caused a decrease in lifespan that was associated with a reduced disease duration rather than earlier disease onset. In contrast, MnSOD deficiency had no effect on lifespan or disease parameters of H46R/H48Q mutant mice. MnSOD deficiency thus has a differential effect on disease progression in different mutant SOD1 ALS mouse models, suggesting that different ALS-causing mutations in SOD1 result in disease progression by at least proximally different mechanisms/pathways.