STAT3 Promotes Schistosome-Induced Liver Injury by Inflammation, Oxidative Stress, Proliferation, and Apoptosis Signal Pathway.

Schistosomiasis is a parasitic helminth disease that can cause organ lesions leading to health damage. During a schistosome infection, schistosome eggs can flow into the liver along the portal vein. Numerous inflammatory cells gather around the eggs, causing granulomas and fibrosis in the liver. In this process, many molecules are involved in the initiation and regulation of the fibrous scar formation. However, the precise molecular mechanisms responsible for the progression of granuloma formation and fibrosis initiation caused by schistosome infection have not been extensively studied. In this study, C57BL/6 wild-type mice and Stat3flox/flox Alb-Cre mice were infected with cercariae of Schistosoma japonicum Liver injury, effector molecule levels, and RNA transcriptome resequencing of liver tissue were detected at 4, 5, and 6 weeks postinfection. We investigated the role of STAT3 (signal transducer and activator of transcription 3) in Schistosoma-induced liver injury in mice. After 6 weeks postinfection, there was obvious liver fibrosis. A sustained pathological process (inflammation, oxidative stress, proliferation, and apoptosis) occurred in S. japonicum-induced liver fibrosis initiation. Meanwhile, we observed activation of the STAT3 pathway in hepatic injury during S. japonicum infection by RNA transcriptome resequencing. Liver deficiency of phospho-STAT3 alleviated infection-induced liver dysfunction, hepatic granuloma formation, and fibrosis initiation. It also promoted STAT3-dependent apoptosis and reduced liver inflammation, oxidative stress, and proliferation. Our results suggest that STAT3 signal pathway and its mediating inflammation, oxidative stress, proliferation, and apoptosis are involved in S. japonicum-induced liver injury and may be a new potential guideline for the treatment of schistosomiasis.

Intermedin alleviates pathological cardiac remodeling by upregulating klotho.

Cardiac remodeling is accompanied by cardiac hypertrophy, fibrosis, dysfunction, and eventually leading to heart failure. Intermedin (IMD), as a paracrine/autocrine peptide, has a protective effect in cardiovascular diseases. In this study, we elucidated the role and the underlying mechanism of IMD in pathological remodeling. Pathological remodeling mouse models were induced by abdominal aorta constriction for 4 weeks or angiotensin II (Ang II) infusion for 2 weeks in wildtype, IMD-overexpression, IMD-knockout and klotho-knockdown mice. Western blot, real-time PCR, histological staining, echocardiography and hemodynamics were used to detect the role of IMD in cardiac remodeling. Cardiac hypertrophy, fibrosis and dysfunction were significantly aggravated in IMD-knockout mice versus wildtype mice, and the expression of klotho was downregulated. Conversely, cardiac remodeling was alleviated in IMD-overexpression mice, and the expression of klotho was upregulated. Hypertension induced by Ang II infusion rather than abdominal aorta constriction was mitigated by IMD. However, the cardioprotective effect of IMD was blocked in klotho-knockdown mice. Similar results were found in cultured neonatal rat cardiomyocytes, which was pretreated with IMD before Ang II stimulation. Mechanistically, IMD inhibited the phosphorylation of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) and the activity of calcineurin to protect against cardiac hypertrophy through upregulating klotho in vivo and in vitro. Furthermore, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) might mediate IMD upregulating klotho. In conclusion, pathological remodeling may be alleviated by endogenous IMD, which inhibits the expression of calcineurin and p-CaMKII by upregulating klotho via the PPARγ pathway. It suggested that IMD might be a therapeutic target for heart disease.

Endoplasmic reticulum stress-mediated apoptosis is activated in intestines of mice with Trichinella spiralis infection.

Gastrointestinal helminth infection, including Trichinella spiralis, initiates a series of intestinal structural, cellular and physiological changes. Intestinal invasion is an important stage of trichinellosis because it determines the development and subsequent course of the disease and its consequences. Apoptosis mediated by endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) plays a key role in infectious diseases, but the effect of T. spiralis infection on inducing apoptosis in the small intestine has been neglected. We investigated apoptosis and changes in ERS-associated apoptosis molecules in the intestine of mice with T. spiralis infection. TUNEL staining and detection of the apoptotic marker cleaved caspase 3 revealed that apoptosis occurred in the mouse intestine at days 3 and 7 post-infection. The ER chaperone 78-kDa glucose-regulated protein (GRP78) was upregulated at days 3 and 7 post-infection. The ERS-associated apoptosis molecules C/EBP homologous protein, cleaved caspase 12 and c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase were upregulated at days 3 and 7, days 3, 7 and 10 and days 7 and 10 post-infection, respectively. Thus, apoptosis occurred in the intestine of mice with T. spiralis infection, and the ERS-mediated apoptosis pathway was activated by infection with this small intestine dwelling nematode.

Intermedin Alleviates Diabetic Cardiomyopathy by Up-Regulating CPT-1ß through Activation of the Phosphatidyl Inositol 3 Kinase/Protein Kinase B Signaling Pathway.

Diabetic cardiomyopathy (DCM), one of the most serious long-term consequences of diabetes, is closely associated with myocardial fatty acid metabolism. Carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1ß (CPT-1ß) is the rate-limiting enzyme responsible for ß-oxidation of long-chain fatty acids. Intermedin (IMD) is a pivotal bioactive small molecule peptide, participating in the protection of various cardiovascular diseases. However, the role and underlying mechanisms of IMD in DCM are still unclear. In this study, we investigated whether IMD alleviates DCM via regulating CPT-1ß. A rat DCM model was established by having rats to drink fructose water for 12 weeks. A mouse DCM model was induced by feeding mice a high-fat diet for 16 weeks. We showed that IMD and its receptor complexes levels were significantly down-regulated in the cardiac tissues of DCM rats and mice. Reduced expression of IMD was also observed in neonatal rat cardiomyocytes treated with palmitic acid (PA, 300 µM) in vitro. Exogenous and endogenous IMD mitigated cardiac hypertrophy, fibrosis, dysfunction, and lipid accumulation in DCM rats and IMD-transgenic DCM mice, whereas knockout of IMD worsened these pathological processes in IMD-knockout DCM mice. In vitro, IMD alleviated PA-induced cardiomyocyte hypertrophy and cardiac fibroblast activation. We found that CPT-1ß enzyme activity, mRNA and protein levels, and acetyl-CoA content were increased in T2DM patients, rats and mice. IMD up-regulated the CPT-1ß levels and acetyl-CoA content in T2DM rats and mice. Knockdown of CPT-1ß blocked the effects of IMD on increasing acetyl-CoA content and on inhibiting cardiomyocyte hypertrophy and cardiac fibroblast activation. IMD receptor antagonist IMD17-47 and the phosphatidyl inositol 3 kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt) inhibitor LY294002 reversed the effects of IMD on up-regulating CPT-1ß and acetyl-CoA expression and on inhibiting cardiomyocyte hypertrophy and cardiac fibroblast activation. We revealed that IMD alleviates DCM by up-regulating CPT-1ß via calcitonin receptor-like receptor/receptor activity-modifying protein (CRLR/RAMP) receptor complexes and PI3K/Akt signaling. IMD may serve as a potent therapeutic target for the treatment of DCM.

Systemic cytokine profiles and splenic toll-like receptor expression during Trichinella spiralis infection.

Parasitic helminth and their products can suppress or modulate the host immune response for long-term survival and continued infection. Commonly, helminth can induce conditional T helper cell type 2 (Th2) response, regulatory T cell and cytokines, and altered function of antigen presentation cells by modulating toll-like receptors (TLRs). The helminth Trichinella spiralis establishes chronic infection in skeletal muscles of a wide range of mammalian hosts. We infected mice with T. spiralis and investigated Th1/Th2/Th17 cytokine profiles in serum and expression of TLRs and related signal molecules in spleen at various times post-infection. The infection evoked a mixed Th1/Th2 and inhibited Th17 immune response, with initial predominance of a Th1 response in intestine stage and subsequent predominance of a Th2 response in muscle stage. Different stages of infection had different impacts on the expression of TLRs and related signaling molecules. In the adult stage of infection, TLR1 and TLR4 were upregulated and the MyD88-dependent signal pathway was activated. The muscle larvae inhibited TLR4 and TRIF-dependent signal pathway. Our results implied that T. spiralis infection may regulate Th1/Th2/Th17 cytokine production through TLRs.

Intermedin alleviates diabetic vascular calcification by inhibiting GLUT1 through activation of the cAMP/PKA signaling pathway.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Vascular calcification (VC) is regarded as an independent risk factor for cardiovascular events in type 2 diabetic patients. Glucose transporter 1 (GLUT1) involves VC. Intermedin/Adrenomedullin-2 (IMD/ADM2) is a cardiovascular protective peptide that can inhibit multiple disease-associated VC. However, the role and mechanism of IMD in diabetic VC remain unclear. Here, we investigated whether IMD inhibits diabetic VC by inhibiting GLUT1. METHODS AND RESULTS: It was found that plasma IMD concentration was significantly decreased in type 2 diabetic patients and in fructose-induced diabetic rats compared with that in controls. Plasma IMD content was inversely correlated with fasting blood glucose level and VC severity. IMD alleviated VC in fructose-induced diabetic rats. Deficiency of Adm2 aggravated and Adm2 overexpression attenuated VC in high-fat diet-induced diabetic mice. In vitro, IMD mitigated high glucose-induced calcification of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). Mechanistically, IMD reduced advanced glycation end products (AGEs) content and the level of receptor for AGEs (RAGE). IMD decreased glucose transporter 1 (GLUT1) levels. The inhibitory effect of IMD on RAGE protein level was blocked by GLUT1 knockdown. GLUT1 knockdown abolished the effect of IMD on alleviating VSMC calcification. IMD receptor antagonist IMD17-47 and cyclic adenosine monophosphate/protein kinase A (cAMP/PKA) inhibitor H89 abolished the inhibitory effects of IMD on GLUT1 and VSMC calcification. CONCLUSIONS: These findings revealed that IMD exerted its anti-calcification effect by inhibiting GLUT1, providing a novel therapeutic target for diabetic VC.

Intermedin Alleviates Vascular Calcification in CKD through Sirtuin 3-Mediated Inhibition of Mitochondrial Oxidative Stress.

Vascular calcification (VC) is a common pathophysiological process of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Sirtuin 3 (Sirt3), a major NAD+-dependent protein deacetylase predominantly in mitochondria, is involved in the pathogenesis of VC. We previously reported that intermedin (IMD) could protect against VC. In this study, we investigated whether IMD attenuates VC by Sirt3-mediated inhibition of mitochondrial oxidative stress. A rat VC with CKD model was induced by the 5/6 nephrectomy plus vitamin D3. Vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) calcification was induced by CaCl2 and ß-glycerophosphate. IMD1-53 treatment attenuated VC in vitro and in vivo, rescued the depressed mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) level and decreased mitochondrial ROS levels in calcified VSMCs. IMD1-53 treatment recovered the reduced protein level of Sirt3 in calcified rat aortas and VSMCs. Inhibition of VSMC calcification by IMD1-53 disappeared when the cells were Sirt3 absent or pretreated with the Sirt3 inhibitor 3-TYP. Furthermore, 3-TYP pretreatment blocked IMD1-53-mediated restoration of the MMP level and inhibition of mitochondrial oxidative stress in calcified VSMCs. The attenuation of VSMC calcification by IMD1-53 through upregulation of Sirt3 might be achieved through activation of the IMD receptor and post-receptor signaling pathway AMPK, as indicated by pretreatment with an IMD receptor antagonist or AMPK inhibitor blocking the inhibition of VSMC calcification and upregulation of Sirt3 by IMD1-53. AMPK inhibitor treatment reversed the effects of IMD1-53 on restoring the MMP level and inhibiting mitochondrial oxidative stress in calcified VSMCs. In conclusion, IMD attenuates VC by improving mitochondrial function and inhibiting mitochondrial oxidative stress through upregulating Sirt3.

Intermedin1-53 Inhibits NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation by Targeting IRE1α in Cardiac Fibrosis.

Intermedin (IMD), a paracrine/autocrine peptide, protects against cardiac fibrosis. However, the underlying mechanism remains poorly understood. Previous study reports that activation of nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome contributes to cardiac fibrosis. In this study, we aimed to investigate whether IMD mitigated cardiac fibrosis by inhibiting NLRP3. Cardiac fibrosis was induced by angiotensin II (Ang II) infusion for 2 weeks in rats. Western blot, real-time PCR, histological staining, immunofluorescence assay, RNA sequencing, echocardiography, and hemodynamics were used to detect the role and the mechanism of IMD in cardiac fibrosis. Ang II infusion resulted in rat cardiac fibrosis, shown as over-deposition of myocardial interstitial collagen and cardiac dysfunction. Importantly, NLRP3 activation and endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) were found in Ang II-treated rat myocardium. Ang II infusion decreased the expression of IMD and increased the expression of the receptor system of IMD in the fibrotic rat myocardium. IMD treatment attenuated the cardiac fibrosis and improved cardiac function. In addition, IMD inhibited the upregulation of NLRP3 markers and ERS markers induced by Ang II. In vitro, IMD knockdown by small interfering RNA significantly promoted the Ang II-induced cardiac fibroblast and NLRP3 activation. Moreover, silencing of inositol requiring enzyme 1 α (IRE1α) blocked the effects of IMD inhibiting fibroblast and NLRP3 activation. Pre-incubation with PKA pathway inhibitor H89 blocked the effects of IMD on the anti-ERS, anti-NLRP3, and anti-fibrotic response. In conclusion, IMD alleviated cardiac fibrosis by inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome activation through suppressing IRE1α via the cAMP/PKA pathway.

Intermedin1-53 attenuates atherosclerotic plaque vulnerability by inhibiting CHOP-mediated apoptosis and inflammasome in macrophages.

Atherosclerotic plaque vulnerability and rupture increase the risk of acute coronary syndromes. Advanced lesion macrophage apoptosis plays important role in the rupture of atherosclerotic plaque, and endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) has been proved to be a key mechanism of macrophage apoptosis. Intermedin (IMD) is a regulator of ERS. Here, we investigated whether IMD enhances atherosclerotic plaque stability by inhibiting ERS-CHOP-mediated apoptosis and subsequent inflammasome in macrophages. We studied the effects of IMD on features of plaque vulnerability in hyperlipemia apolipoprotein E-deficient (ApoE-/-) mice. Six-week IMD1-53 infusion significantly reduced atherosclerotic lesion size. Of note, IMD1-53 lowered lesion macrophage content and necrotic core size and increased fibrous cap thickness and vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) content thus reducing overall plaque vulnerability. Immunohistochemical analysis indicated that IMD1-53 administration prevented ERS activation in aortic lesions of ApoE-/- mice, which was further confirmed in oxidized low-density lipoproteins (ox-LDL) induced macrophages. Similar to IMD, taurine (Tau), a non-selective ERS inhibitor significantly reduced atherosclerotic lesion size and plaque vulnerability. Moreover, C/EBP-homologous protein (CHOP), a pro-apoptosis transcription factor involved in ERS, was significantly increased in advanced lesion macrophages, and deficiency of CHOP stabilized atherosclerotic plaques in AopE-/- mice. IMD1-53 decreased CHOP level and apoptosis in vivo and in macrophages treated with ox-LDL. In addition, IMD1-53 infusion ameliorated NLRP3 inflammasome and subsequent proinflammatory cytokines in vivo and in vitro. IMD may attenuate the progression of atherosclerotic lesions and plaque vulnerability by inhibiting ERS-CHOP-mediated macrophage apoptosis, and subsequent NLRP3 triggered inflammation. The inhibitory effect of IMD on ERS-induced macrophages apoptosis was probably mediated by blocking CHOP activation.

Inhibition of Notch1-mediated inflammation by intermedin protects against abdominal aortic aneurysm via PI3K/Akt signaling pathway.

The Notch1-mediated inflammatory response participates in the development of abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA). The vascular endogenous bioactive peptide intermedin (IMD) plays an important role in maintaining vascular homeostasis. However, whether IMD inhibits AAA by inhibiting Notch1-mediated inflammation is unclear. In this study, we found Notch intracellular domain (NICD) and hes1 expression were higher in AAA patients' aortas than in healthy controls. In angiotensin II (AngII)-induced AAA mouse model, IMD treatment significantly reduced AAA incidence and maximal aortic diameter. IMD inhibited AngII-enlarged aortas and -degraded elastic lamina, reduced NICD, hes1 and inflammatory factors expression, decreased infiltration of CD68 positive macrophages and the NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 protein level. IMD inhibited lipopolysaccharide-induced macrophage migration in vitro and regulated macrophage polarization. Moreover, IMD overexpression significantly reduced CaCl2-induced AAA incidence and down-regulated NICD and hes1 expression. However, IMD deficiency showed opposite results. Mechanically, IMD treatment significantly decreased cleavage enzyme-a disintegrin and metalloproteinase domain-containing protein 10 (ADAM10) level. Pre-incubation with IMD17-47 (IMD receptors blocking peptide) and the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase b (PI3K/Akt) inhibitor LY294002 reversed ADAM10 level. In conclusion, exogenous and endogenous IMD could inhibit the development of AAA by inhibiting Notch1 signaling-mediated inflammation via reducing ADAM10 through IMD receptor and PI3K/Akt pathway.

Intermedin1-53 attenuates aging-associated vascular calcification in rats by upregulating sirtuin 1.

Vascular calcification is a common phenomenon in older adults. Intermedin (IMD) is a cardiovascular bioactive peptide inhibiting vascular calcification. In this study, we aimed to investigate whether IMD1-53 attenuates aging-associated vascular calcification. Vascular calcification was induced by vitamin D3 plus nicotine (VDN) in young and old rats. The calcification in aortas was more severe in old rats treated with VDN than young control rats, and IMD expression was lower. Exogenous administration of IMD1-53 significantly inhibited the calcium deposition in aortas and the osteogenic transdifferentiation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) in VDN-treated old rats. Moreover, levels of aging-related p16, p21 and ß-galactosidase were all greatly decreased by IMD1-53. These results were further confirmed in rat and human VSMCs in vitro. In addition, IMD-deficient mouse VSMCs showed senescence features coinciding with osteogenic transition as compared with wild-type mouse VSMCs. Mechanistically, IMD1-53 significantly increased the expression of the anti-aging factor sirtuin 1 (sirt1); the inhibitory effects of IMD1-53 on calcification and senescence were blocked by sirt1 knockdown. Furthermore, preincubation with inhibitors of PI3K, AMPK or PKA efficiently blunted the upregulatory effect of IMD1-53 on sirt1. Consequently, IMD1-53 could attenuate aging-associated vascular calcification by upregulating sirt1 via activating PI3K/Akt, AMPK and cAMP/PKA signaling.

Intermedin1-53 protects against cardiac hypertrophy by inhibiting endoplasmic reticulum stress via activating AMP-activated protein kinase.

OBJECTIVE: Intermedin (IMD), a novel member of the calcitonin/calcitonin gene-related peptide family, is involved in maintaining circulatory homeostasis and is a protective factor of heart and vessel. Here, we investigated the effects of IMD on cardiac hypertrophy in vivo and in vitro and explored the mechanisms involved. METHODS AND RESULTS: IMD1-53 (100 ng/kg/h) was systemically administered to rats with cardiac hypertrophy induced by abdominal aortic constriction (AAC) by a mini-osmotic pump the next day after surgery continuously for 4 weeks. The AAC-treated rats before IMD infusion showed increased IMD content and expression of its receptors in the hearts. In-vivo administration of IMD1-53 greatly attenuated the cardiac hypertrophy as shown by heart weight to body weight ratio (HW/BW), haemodynamics, echocardiography, histological analyses and expression of hypertrophic markers atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) and brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) induced by AAC. IMD1-53 treatment significantly reduced the myocardial protein expression of endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) markers such as glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78), CCAAT/enhancer binding protein homologous protein (CHOP) and caspase-12, whereas the protein level of phosphorylated AMP-activated protein kinase (p-AMPK) was upregulated with IMD1-53 treatment, which was further confirmed in cultured cardiomyocytes. Concurrently, cardiomyocyte apoptosis in vivo and in vitro was ameliorated by IMD1-53 treatment. The inhibitory effects of IMD1-53 on ERS and apoptosis were eliminated on pretreatment with compound C, an AMPK inhibitor. CONCLUSION: IMD1-53 could exert its cardioprotective effect on cardiac hypertrophy by inhibiting myocardial ERS and apoptosis, possibly via activation of AMPK signalling.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ ligands retard cultured vascular smooth muscle cells calcification induced by high glucose.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) and its ligands have profound effects on glucose homeostasis, cardiovascular diseases, and bone metabolism. To explore the pathophysiological roles of PPARγ in diabetes with concomitant vascular calcification, we investigated changes in PPARγ expression and the effect of the PPARγ ligands troglitazone and rosiglitazone on vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) calcification induced by high glucose (HG, 25 mmol/L). Compared with low glucose, HG-induced VSMC calcification, and PPARγ mRNA, protein level was decreased. Troglitazone and rosiglitazone treatment markedly attenuated the VSMC calcification, whereas PPARγ antagonist GW9662 abolished the effect of rosiglitazone on calcification. Pretreatment of VSMCs with rosiglitazone, but not troglitazone, restored the loss of lineage marker expression: the protein levels of α-actin and SM-22α were increased 52 % (P < 0.05) and 53.1% (P < 0.01), respectively, as compared with HG alone. Troglitazone and rosiglitazone reversed the change in bone-related protein expression induced by HG: decreased the mRNA levels of osteocalcin, bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP2), and core binding factor α 1 (Cbfα-1) by 26.9% (P > 0.05), 50.0 % (P < 0.01), and 24.4% (P < 0.05), and 48.4% (P < 0.05), 41.4% (P < 0.01) and 56.2% (P < 0.05), respectively, and increased that of matrix Gla protein (MGP) 84.2% (P < 0.01) and 70.0%, respectively (P < 0.05), as compared with HG alone. GW9662 abolished the effect of rosiglitazone on Cbfα-1 and MGP expression. PPARγ ligands can inhibit VSMCs calcification induced by high glucose.