Enhanced clearance of Abeta in brain by sustaining the plasmin proteolysis cascade.

The amyloid hypothesis states that a variety of neurotoxic beta-amyloid (Abeta) species contribute to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Accordingly, a key determinant of disease onset and progression is the appropriate balance between Abeta production and clearance. Enzymes responsible for the degradation of Abeta are not well understood, and, thus far, it has not been possible to enhance Abeta catabolism by pharmacological manipulation. We provide evidence that Abeta catabolism is increased after inhibition of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) and may constitute a viable therapeutic approach for lowering brain Abeta levels. PAI-1 inhibits the activity of tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), an enzyme that cleaves plasminogen to generate plasmin, a protease that degrades Abeta oligomers and monomers. Because tPA, plasminogen and PAI-1 are expressed in the brain, we tested the hypothesis that inhibitors of PAI-1 will enhance the proteolytic clearance of brain Abeta. Our data demonstrate that PAI-1 inhibitors augment the activity of tPA and plasmin in hippocampus, significantly lower plasma and brain Abeta levels, restore long-term potentiation deficits in hippocampal slices from transgenic Abeta-producing mice, and reverse cognitive deficits in these mice.

NKTR-358: A novel regulatory T-cell stimulator that selectively stimulates expansion and suppressive function of regulatory T cells for the treatment of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases.

Impaired interleukin-2 (IL-2) production and regulatory T-cell dysfunction have been implicated as immunological mechanisms central to the pathogenesis of multiple autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. NKTR-358, a novel regulatory T-cell stimulator, is an investigational therapeutic that selectively restores regulatory T-cell homeostasis in these diseases. We investigated NKTR-358's selectivity for regulatory T-cells, receptor-binding properties, ex vivo and in vivo pharmacodynamics, ability to suppress conventional T-cell proliferation in mice and non-human primates, and functional activity in a murine model of systemic lupus erythematosus. In vitro, NKTR-358 demonstrated decreased affinity for IL-2Rα, IL-2Rß, and IL-2Rαß compared with recombinant human IL-2 (rhIL-2). A single dose of NKTR-358 in cynomolgus monkeys produced a greater than 15-fold increase in regulatory T-cells, and the increase lasted until day 14, while daily rhIL-2 administration for 5 days only elicited a 3-fold increase, which lasted until day 7. Repeated dosing of NKTR-358 over 6 months in cynomolgus monkeys elicited cyclical, robust increases in regulatory T-cells with no loss in drug activity over the course of treatment. Regulatory T-cells isolated from NKTR-358-treated mice displayed a sustained, higher suppression of conventional T-cell proliferation than regulatory T-cells isolated from vehicle-treated mice. NKTR-358 treatment in a mouse model (MRL/MpJ-Faslpr) of systemic lupus erythematosus for 12 weeks maintained elevated regulatory T-cells for the treatment duration and ameliorated disease progression. Together, these results suggest that NKTR-358 has the ability to elicit sustained and preferential proliferation and activation of regulatory T-cells without corresponding effects on conventional T-cells, with improved pharmacokinetics compared with rhIL-2.

Impact of apolipoprotein E (ApoE) polymorphism on brain ApoE levels.

Inheritance of the apoE4 allele (epsilon4) increases the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease; however, the mechanisms underlying this association remain elusive. Recent data suggest that inheritance of epsilon4 may lead to reduced apoE protein levels in the CNS. We therefore examined apoE protein levels in the brains, CSF and plasma of epsilon2/2, epsilon3/3, and epsilon4/4 targeted replacement mice. These apoE mice showed a genotype-dependent decrease in apoE levels; epsilon2/2 >epsilon3/3 >epsilon4/4. Next, we sought to examine the relative contributions of apoE4 and apoE3 in the epsilon3/4 mouse brains. ApoE4 represented 30-40% of the total apoE. Moreover, the absolute amount of apoE3 per allele was similar between epsilon3/3 and epsilon3/4 mice, implying that the reduced levels of total apoE in epsilon3/4 mice can be explained by the reduction in apoE4 levels. In culture medium from epsilon3/4 human astrocytoma or epsilon3/3, epsilon4/4 and epsilon3/4 primary astrocytes, apoE4 levels were consistently lower than apoE3. Secreted cholesterol levels were also lower from epsilon4/4 astrocytes. Pulse-chase experiments showed an enhanced degradation and reduced half-life of newly synthesized apoE4 compared with apoE3. Together, these data suggest that astrocytes preferentially degrade apoE4, leading to reduced apoE4 secretion and ultimately to reduced brain apoE levels. Moreover, the genotype-dependent decrease in CNS apoE levels, mirror the relative risk of developing AD, and suggest that low levels of total apoE exhibited by epsilon4 carriers may directly contribute to the disease progression, perhaps by reducing the capacity of apoE to promote synaptic repair and/or Abeta clearance.

NKTR-214, an Engineered Cytokine with Biased IL2 Receptor Binding, Increased Tumor Exposure, and Marked Efficacy in Mouse Tumor Models.

PURPOSE: Aldesleukin, recombinant human IL2, is an effective immunotherapy for metastatic melanoma and renal cancer, with durable responses in approximately 10% of patients; however, severe side effects limit maximal dosing and thus the number of patients able to receive treatment and potential cure. NKTR-214 is a prodrug of conjugated IL2, retaining the same amino acid sequence as aldesleukin. The IL2 core is conjugated to 6 releasable polyethylene glycol (PEG) chains. In vivo, the PEG chains slowly release to generate active IL2 conjugates. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: We evaluated the bioactivity and receptor binding of NKTR-214 and its active IL2 conjugates in vitro; the tumor immunology, tumor pharmacokinetics, and efficacy of NKTR-214 as a single agent and in combination with anti-CTLA-4 antibody in murine tumor models. Tolerability was evaluated in non-human primates. RESULTS: In a murine melanoma tumor model, the ratio of tumor-killing CD8(+) T cells to Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells was greater than 400 for NKTR-214 compared with 18 for aldesleukin, supporting preferential activation of the IL2 receptor beta over IL2 receptor alpha, due to the location of PEG molecules. NKTR-214 provides a 500-fold greater exposure of the tumor to conjugated IL2 compared with aldesleukin. NKTR-214 showed efficacy as a single agent and provided durable immunity that was resistant to tumor rechallenge in combination with anti-CTLA-4 antibody. NKTR-214 was well tolerated in non-human primates. CONCLUSIONS: These data support further evaluation of NKTR-214 in humans for a variety of tumor types, adding to the repertoire of potent and potentially curative cancer immunotherapies.

Radiotherapy of human xenograft NSCLC tumors in nude mice with a 90Y-labeled anti-tissue factor antibody.

Tissue factor (TF) is a type I transmembrane protein and the initiator of the extrinsic blood coagulation pathway. TF plays a critical role in tumor development and its overexpression is observed in many tumors. To understand the prevalence and relative level of TF expression in non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC), we analyzed 50 NSCLC tumors by immunohistochemical staining and found that 88% of human NSCLC tumors overexpressed TF. We then generated a high affinity anti-TF antibody, TF278, which specifically binds TF on the surface of cells and is internalized upon binding. An 111In-labeled TF278 demonstrated favorable tumor accumulation in an SW-900 xenograft tumor model with a maximum mean percent of injected dose per gram of tissue (%ID/g) of 73.1% at 96 hours postinjection. In addition, we labeled the antibody with 90Y and tested its ability to inhibit the growth of tumors in an SW-900 xenograft tumor model in immunocompromised mice. The 90Y-TF278 slowed the growth of SW-900 tumors at a 50 microCi dose and completely regressed SW-900 tumors at a 150 microCi dose with little toxicity.

The LXR agonist TO901317 selectively lowers hippocampal Abeta42 and improves memory in the Tg2576 mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.

Recent studies show that intracellular cholesterol levels can modulate the processing of amyloid precursor protein to Abeta peptide. Moreover, cholesterol-rich apoE-containing lipoproteins may also promote Abeta clearance. Agonists of the liver X receptor (LXR) transcriptionally induce genes involved in intracellular lipid efflux and transport, including apoE. Thus, LXR agonists have the potential to both inhibit APP processing and promote Abeta clearance. Here we show that LXR agonist, TO901317, increased hippocampal ABCA1 and apoE and decreased Abeta42 levels in APP transgenic mice. TO901317 had no significant effects on levels of Abeta40, full length APP, or the APP processing products. Next, we examined the effects of TO901317 in the contextual fear conditioning paradigm; TO901317 completely reversed the contextual memory deficit in these mice. These data demonstrate that LXR agonists do not directly inhibit APP processing but rather facilitate the clearance of Abeta42 and may represent a novel therapeutic approach to Alzheimer's disease.